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ORATORY 

AL OF 
ICULTURE 



SCHAFER 



A LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 




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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



A LABORATORY 
MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



BY 
LELAND E. CALL, M.S. 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SOILS IN THE KANSAS 
STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 

AND 

E. G. SCHAFER, M.S. 

INSTRUCTOR IN FARM CROPS IN THE KANSAS 
STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1912 

All rights reserved 



&\ 



V 






COPYRIGHT, 1912, 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1912. 



Noruxooti $regg 

J. 8. Cushing- Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



*? 



PREFACE 

As population increases, society is demanding greater 
efficiency on the part of the producers — the men and women 
who feed, clothe, and shelter society. This demand can be 
met only by giving the producers an education that will 
function in greater social and vocational efficiency. During 
the last decade there has been an increasing interest in agri- 
cultural education for the secondary schools. 

The greatest danger to agriculture as a subject for a course 
of study in high schools has resulted from attempting to make 
it conform to the organizing ideas of that kind of education 
that has for its controlling motive formal discipline, instead 
of making it strictly vocational. The result is that agri- 
culture is being taught as a textbook subject in too many of 
the high schools. This is due largely, no doubt, to the fact 
that there have been no laboratory and field guides in agri- 
culture adapted to high schools. The controlling motive 
in the organization of a course in agriculture should be vo- 
cational efficiency. 

The authors of this manual are experts in agriculture. 
Both of them have spent much time in studying how agri- 
culture can be adapted to the needs of secondary education. 
Their training and experience in teaching the subject have 
admirably fitted them to prepare a workable manual for 



Vi PREFACE 

the high schools. I have examined carefully every lesson 
in the manual and have seen many of them worked out in 
the laboratory and field, and I am firmly convinced that it 
meets an urgent need in the high schools to-day. It is 
scientific, systematic, and, above everything else, it is a 
workable manual. It can be adapted to the needs of the 
small and the large high schools. 

In writing this valuable manual the authors have done 
credit to themselves and have rendered a great service to the 
high schools. 

Edwin L. Holton. 

Department of Rural Education, 

Kansas State Agricultural College. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

In the preparation of this manual the authors have used 
freely every available source of information. They are in- 
debted to Pres. H. J. Waters, Prof. E. L. Holton, Prof. 
Albert Dickens, Prof. J. W. Searson, Prof. H. L. Kent, Prof. 
G. H. Hine, Mr. C. F. Chase, and Mr. W. T. McCampbell, 
of Kansas State Agriculture College, for suggestions and 
assistance in the preparation of this manual. 

They are also indebted to the Animal Husbandry Depart- 
ment of Purdue University for illustrations Nos. 15, 21, 22, 
and 23 ; to the Animal Husbandry Department of Kansas 
State Agricultural College for illustrations Nos. 18 and 20; 
to the Dairy Department of Kansas State Agricultural Col- 
lege for illustration No. 19; and to Mr. H. Yuasa for assist- 
ance in the preparation of drawings. 

Material taken from other sources has been properly 
credited where it appears in the manual. 



vn 



CONTENTS 



EXERCISES FOR SEPTEMBER 

EXEKCI8E PAGE 

1. Distribution op Seeds 1 

2. A Eield Lesson on the Study of Corn .... 5 

3. A Study of Soil Particles ....... 8 

4. A Field Lesson in Soils 14 

5. The Influence of Vegetation on Soil Temperature . 19 

6. A Soil Moisture Study 23 

EXERCISES FOR OCTOBER 

7. A Soil Moisture Study {Continued) 23 

8. The Rise of Capillary Water in Soils .... 30 

9. The Percolation of Water in Soils . . . .34 

10. The Weight of Soil per Cubic Foot ..... 40 

11. Capacity of Soils to hold Moisture 44 

12. Soil Drainage 49 

13. Soil Mulches , 53 

14. The Effect of Undecayed Organic Matter on the Rise 

of Soil Moisture 59 

15. Collecting Material for Starting Plants (Field Lesson). 63 

EXERCISES FOR NOVEMBER 

16. The Early Development of the Wheat Plant 66 

17. The Early Development of the Rye Plant ... 71 

18. The Early Development of the Corn Plant ... 75 

19. The Corn Kernel 79 

ix 



X CONTENTS 

EXERCISE PAGE 

20. The Ear of Corn 83 

21-23. Corn Judging 88 

EXERCISES FOR DECEMBER 

24. A Study of Shelled Corn 100 

25. A Study of the Wheat Head ...... 105 

26. A Study of the Rye Head ....... Ill 

27-28. A Study of Wheat 116 

29. A Study of Rye . . . 121 

30. A Study of the Barley Head 124 

EXERCISES FOR JANUARY 



31. A Study of the Oat Head . 

32. A Study of Barley 

33. A Study of Oats 

34. A Study of the Sorghum Head 

35. A Study of Sorghum Seed 

36. A Study of Cowpeas or Soy Beans 

37. The Capacity of Grain to absorb Moisture 

38. Factors affecting the Germination of Seeds 



129 
133 
137 
141 
144 
148 
151 
154 



EXERCISES FOR FEBRUARY 

39. A Germination Test of Clover or Grass Seed . . . 159 

40. A Study of Grass Seed 162 

41. A Study of Alfalfa Seed ....... 165 

42. A Study of the Plow ........ 168 

43. A Study of the Grain Grader or Fanning Mill . . 171 

44. The Corn Grader 175 

45. The Corn Planter 178 

46. Accuracy of Drop of the Corn Planter .... 182 



CONTENTS XI 
EXERCISES FOR MARCH 

EXERCISE PAGE 

47. Treatment of Seed Oats for Smut 185 

48. The Irish Potato 189 

49-50. Planning the Home Garden ...... 193 

51. Pruning 197 

52-53. Babcock Test 200 

54. Mixing Sfray Material 205 

55. Grafting 209 

EXERCISES FOR APRIL 

56-57. Germination Test of Seed Corn 213 

58. The Early Development of the Barley Plant . . 218 

59. The Early Development of the Oat Plant . . . 222 

60. Judging Draft Horses 226 

61. Judging Light Horses ........ 236 

62. Comparative Judging of Horses 244 

63. Judging Dairy Cattle 249 

EXERCISES FOR MAY 

64. Judging Beef Cattle . . . . . ' . . . 257 

65. Comparative Judging of Cattle ...... 263 

66. Judging Fat Hogs 268 

67. Judging Mutton Sheep 274 

68-69. Judging a Farm 280 

70. Planning the Home Farm .... . . 287 

71. The Arrangement of Farm Buildings and Plantings . 291 

EXTRA EXERCISES 

72. The Geographical Distribution of Corn .... 295 

73. The Geographical Distribution of Wheat . . . 299 



xii CONTENTS 

EXERCISE PAGE 

74. The Geographical Distribution or Oats . 303 

75. The Geographical Distribution of Potatoes . . . 307 

76. Tree Identification ........ 311 

77. Starting Plants by Cuttings 315 

78. Potting Plants 317 

79. The Dairy Herd Record 320 

80. A Study of the Egg 325 

81. A Study of the Rice Head 330 

EXTRA FOR ARBOR DAY 

82. Tree Planting 334 

APPENDIX 

Section I. Equipment ......... 337 

Section II. Suggestions to Teachers ..... 341 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIGUEE PAGE 

1. A Soil Auger 15 

2. A Torsion Balance 24 

3. Equipment Suitable for demonstrating Percolation 

of Water in Soils 35 

4. A Soil Mulch Cylinder 54 

5. Young Wheat Plants 67 

6. A Corn Kernel 79 

7. Ears of Corn that approach the Ideal Type . . 89 

8. A Head of Wheat and its Parts 106 

9. A Head of Rye 112 

10. A Head of Six-rowed Barley 125 

11. A Head of Oats . 130 

12. Root Grafting . 210 

13. Cleft Grafting 210 

14. A Seed Corn Tester 214 

15. A Draft Horse, showing Location of Parts . . 228 

16. Rear View of Hind Legs of Horses .... 230 

17. Side View of Hind Legs of Horses .... 231 

18. A Driving Horse, showing Location of Parts . . 238 

19. A Dairy Cow, showing Location of Parts . . 251 

20. A Beef Steer, showing Location of Parts . . 259 

21. A Fat Hog, showing Location of Parts . . . 269 

xiii 



XIV ILL US TRA TIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

22-23. A Mutton Sheep, showing Location of Parts . 276 

24. Map of the United States, showing the Distribu- 

tion of Corn 298 

25. Map of the United States, showing the Distribu- 

tion of Wheat 302 

26. Map of the United States, showing the Distribu- 

tion of Oats 306 

27. Map of the United States, showing the Distribu- 

tion of Potatoes 310 

28. Section of an Egg 326 

29. A Head of Rice 330 



A LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 
FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF 
AGRICULTURE 

EXERCISE 1 
DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS 

Object. — To study natural methods of seed distribution. 

Explanation. — It is an advantage for plants to have 
their seeds distributed as widely as possible. There is severe 
competition among plants for existence. Only a few of 
the many seeds produced from year to year find favorable 
conditions for growth. 

There are four important common methods by which the 
seeds of plants are distributed : distribution by wind ; 
distribution by birds ; forceful expulsion from the pod ; 
distribution by animals other than birds. There are two 
general kinds of seed transported by the wind. Some have 
wings, as the ash and maple. Others have feathery pro- 
jections and float long distances in the air. The dandelion 
and thistle are examples of these. 

Seeds of berries and small fruits are often carried long 
distances by birds. The pulp of the fruit is digested, but 
the seed is uninjured and may be dropped along fence rows 
or other places where it may grow. The fleshy part of the 
fruit is the attraction that favors distribution. 

B 1 



2 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Some seeds produced in pods are thrown out with consider- 
able violence when the pods burst open. The common pea 
and locust are examples of this method of distribution. 

Many seeds, known as burrs, bear small hooks or spines 
which adhere to the hair of animals and to the clothing of 
man. Such seeds are sometimes carried long distances 
before they are removed. The sand burr and cockle burr 
afford good illustrations of this method of distribution. 

Directions. — Make a journey into the fields, visiting, if 
possible, a cultivated field, a pasture, a hillside, a wood lot, a 
creek bank, and a roadside. Collect as many kinds of seeds 
as can be found growing in these places. Make a list of 
the names of the seeds that have been gathered. Record 
in the accompanying outline form the name, the locality 
where collected, and the means that the plant uses for dis- 
tributing its seeds. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 





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4 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 2 
A FIELD LESSON ON THE STUDY OF CORN 

Object. — To observe field conditions that affect yield 
of corn. 

Explanation. — There is a wide range in the yield of corn 
to the acre, not only in different states and counties, but in 
fields adjacent to each other. Close observation in the field 
shows that in many case the stand of corn is not good; 
that is, there are many vacant places, and the corn is 
unevenly distributed. If corn is planted in drills, — one 
kernel to the place, — the plants should be from twelve to 
thirty inches apart in the row. If checkrowed, two to four 
kernels of corn should be planted to the hill, depending 
upon the richness of the soil, rainfall, and other climatic 
conditions, and the variety of corn. 

The ears on the different stalks vary in size. Some are 
large and well-shaped, others, commonly known as nubbins, are 
smaller, and many stalks fail to produce ears at all. It will 
be easily understood that the number of plants for a given 
area, the per cent of stalks producing ears, and the size of 
the ears are all important factors influencing the acre yield. 
In this exercise one stalk for each twenty-one inches will be 
considered a perfect stand when drilled, and three stalks to 
the hill when checkrowed. 

5 



6 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Equipment. — 1. A hundred-foot tape line. 

2. Spring balance. 

3. Half bushel basket. 

Directions. — Go to a neighboring field or patch of corn. 
Select an area representing the average of the field. Meas- 
ure off a row one hundreth of an acre in area. (A row 125 
feet long and 3| feet wide is one hundreth part of an acre.) 
Determine the number of stalks that should be in the row 
if the stand were perfect. Count the number of stalks 
actually in the row. Count the number of stalks producing 
ears. Husk and weigh the corn in the row. Count the total 
number of ears. Determine the average weight of the ears. 
Record all results in the accompanying outline form. Make 
the calculations necessary to fill in the form. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 7 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
Number of stalks for perfect stand 

Actual number of stalks 

Number of ear-producing stalks 

Weight of corn for the plot 

Total number of ears 

Average weight of ears 

From the above determine the following : 

The per cent of a perfect stand 

The per cent of stalk-producing ears 

The plot yield in bushels 

The acre yield in bushels . 

The possible acre yield for a perfect stand, each stalk to produce 
an average-size ear 

The possible acre yield for a perfect stand, each stalk to produce 
a twelve-ounce ear 

(In reducing pounds to bushels count seventy pounds equivalent 
to one bushel.) 



EXERCISE 3 
A STUDY OF SOIL PARTICLES 

Object. — To study the size, shape, color, and character 
of the soil particles in different types of soil. 

Explanation. — The earth is supposed at one time to have 
been solid rock. The soil that now covers the earth was 
formed by the breaking up of this rock material. Mixed 
with the rock material of the soil is a small amount of plant 
material or organic matter. 

In the beginning of soil formation the rocks that com- 
posed the earth were undoubtedly not all of one kind ; some 
were soft and others were hard. The soft rocks gave way 
easily to the forces of nature and were soon ground into 
very small particles. The hard rocks have resisted this 
action, consequently they have been broken up very slowly, 
and they form the larger particles of the soil. 

Some of these particles are so large that they hinder 
plowing and cultivating. These are called stones. Other 
particles smaller than these are called gravel, and still 
smaller particles are called sand. Thus it is possible to 
take a soil, and, by examining it closely, see that it is made 
up of a countless number of particles of many different 
sizes. These particles representing different sizes have been 
given different names, as follows: 

8 



A STUDY OF SOIL PARTICLES 9 

1. Stones: particles of soil so large that they interfere 
with tillage operations. 

2. Gravel: particles smaller than stones but larger than 
one twenty-fifth of an inch in diameter. 

3. Coarse sand: one twenty -fifth to one fiftieth of an inch 
in diameter. 

4. Medium sand : one fiftieth to one hundredth of an inch 
in diameter. 

5. Fine sand: one hundredth to one two hundredth of an 
inch in diameter. 

6. Very fine sand: one two-hundredth to one five-hundredth 
of an inch in diameter. 

7. Silt: one five-hundredth to one five-thousandth of an 
inch in diameter. 

8. Clay: one five-thousandth to one two-hundred-fifty- 
thousandth of an inch in diameter. 

These different-sized particles of soil are spoken of as soil 
components or physical soil constituents. All soils do not 
contain all of these components. Some of the most fertile 
soils do not contain stones or gravel, yet all of the fertile 
soils contain the three other constituents, sand, silt, and clay. 

While all soils contain most of the different soil constit- 
uents, very few soils contain these constituents in exactly 
the same amount. One soil will have the sand particles 
predominating, another soil the silt particles, and a third 
soil the clay particles. Thus there will be different types 
of farm soils produced as the amounts of these different 
soil constituents vary. The leading types of farm soils 
formed by varying amounts of these different soil constit- 
uents are given in the following list: 



10 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

1. Sandy soils. — Made up chiefly of the soil constituents 
of the sand size. 

2. Clay soils. — Soils that contain over one third clay 
and a large amount of silt. 

3. Loam soils. — Soils made up of about one half sand of 
the various grades and the other half silt and clay. 

The soil particles vary in color and shape as well as in 
size. The color of the soil particles has but little influence 
on the color of the soil. The color is clue to organic matter 
and other coloring material found in the soil. 

Equipment. — 1. Microscope magnifying to low power. 

2. Microscope slides. 

3. Four large test tubes. 

4. A few grams of the following soils : gravel, sand, loam, 
clay. 

Directions. — Place a few grains of the gravel on a piece 
of white paper and examine with reference to color. 

Estimate the per cent of particles that are white, gray, 
brown, black. Record your results in the accompanying 
outline form. 

Study the shape of the particles and determine the per 
cent that are angular and rounded. Record your obser- 
vations. 

Study the condition of the particles. Are they single or 
compound? Record the percentage of each. 

Divide the particles into groups as to size. Record the 
per cent that are coarse, medium, and fine. 

Place a few grains of sand on a microscope slide and study 
under the microscope, making the observations required in 
studying gravel. Study in the same way the sample of 



A STUDY OF SOIL PARTICLES ll 

loam and clay. Record all observations in the outline form. 

Wet a small amount of each of the soils and compare 
them as to stickiness; as to feel, whether gritty or smooth 
when rubbed between the fingers. Record your observa- 
tions. 

Examine the different soils as to color. Is the color the 
same as the color of the largest per cent of the soil particles? 
Record your observations. 

Put a small amount of each kind of soil in a test tube, 
fill the tube two thirds full of water, and shake thoroughly. 
Set aside and observe the rapidity with which the particles 
in each soil settle. Which settles the most rapidly? the 
most slowly? Is there any relation between the size of the 
particles and the rapidity with which they settle? Record 
your observations. 



12 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



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STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 13 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 4 
A FIELD LESSON IN SOILS 

Object. — To study the formation of soils and the effect 
of location and cultivation upon their depth and value. 

Explanation. — A soil can usually be separated into three 
distinct layers : first, the surface soil ; second, the subsur- 
face ; and third, the subsoil. The surface soil is the top 
soil and varies in depth with location and manner of forma- 
tion. It is distinguished from the subsurface soil by color, 
the subsurface soil being lighter in color. The subsoil lies 
immediately below the subsurface soil and is also distin- 
guished from the subsurface soil by having a lighter color. 
The subsurface soil is intermediate between the soil and 
subsoil in both location and color. 

The different layers of the soil differ in texture, that is, in 
the size of the soil particles. Usually the surface soil has a 
slightly coarser texture than the subsurface or subsoil. 

Equipment. — 1. A soil auger. 

2. A piece of oilcloth eighteen inches square. 

Directions. — Go to a near-by field in which there is a hill. 
Examine the soil on the level land at the top of the hill, 
on a steep slope, and in the valley at the bottom of the slope. 
Make an examination of the soil in each place as follows : 

14 



A FIELD LESSON IN SOILS 



15 



Select the exact spot to be examined and clear the surface 
of the ground of grass and other vegetation. 

Place the auger over the spot to be examined and give 
it a few turns, forcing it into the ground four or five inches. 
Remove the auger with the soil. In 
pulling the auger a slight backward 
turn will enable the auger to be pulled 
with greater ease, and prevent the cav- 
ing in of the soil around the auger 
hole. 

Remove the soil from the auger and 
place it in a pile on the oilcloth provided 
for the purpose. 

Repeat this operation, forcing the 
auger down a few inches at a time until 
the subsurface is reached. This may be 
determined by the change in color. 

Determine the depth of the surface 
soil by the distance the auger was sunk 
into the ground at the time the subsur- 
face soil was struck. 

Remove a sample of the subsurface 
soil in the same way that the surface 
soil was obtained and pile it on the 
oilcloth by itself. 

Determine the depth of the subsurface soil. 

Remove a sample of the subsoil to a depth of three feet. 
Place the subsoil in a pile on the oilcloth beside the surface 
and subsurface soil. 

Examine carefully each layer of soil and record the differ- 




Fig. 1. — A soil auger 
made by welding a 
f-inch gas pipe to a 
l|-inch wood auger. 



16 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

ence in color, texture, stickiness, and amount of moisture 
and organic matter present. Record your observations in 
the accompanying outline. 

Examine the soil on a steep slope and in the valley in the 
same manner, recording depth of surface, subsurface and 
subsoil. Also record difference in color, texture, stickiness, 
and amount of moisture and organic matter present. Record 
the data in the outline form. 

Examine the surface soil of an old cultivated field and the 
surface soil of the adjoining fence row. Make careful notes 
of any differences observed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do you account for the difference in color between the 
surface, subsurface, and subsoil at the top of the hill? How do 
you account for the difference in stickiness ? For the difference in 
amount of organic matter present ? 

2. Explain the cause of the difference in depth of the surface 
soil on the hilltop, the hill slope, and in the valley. 

3. Explain the difference in color as found in the three places. 

4. Which do you think would grow the better crop, the hillside 
or the bottom ? Why ? Can you state from your knowledge of 
crops whether this is generally true ? 

5. What differences did you observe between the soil in the cul- 
tivated field and the soil in the fence row ? How do you account 
for these differences ? 

6. Was the soil all over the cultivated field originally like the soil 
in the fence row ? What has been the cause of the change brought 
about by cultivating the soil ? 

7. What can the farmer do to make his cultivated land as mellow 
and black as the soil in the fence row ? 

8. What are the uses of humus or organic matter in the soil ? 

REFERENCES 

1. Elements of Agriculture, Warren, pp. 95-96, 109-110. 

2. First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian, pp. 98-104. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



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18 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 5 

THE INFLUENCE OF VEGETATION ON SOIL TEM- 
PERATURE 

Object. — To determine the difference in temperature 
between a soil covered with a growing crop and a bare soil 
exposed to the direct sunshine. 

Explanation. — The temperature of the soil is influenced 
by its color, topography, moisture content, and the vegeta- 
tion growing on the soil. The amount of moisture that the 
soil contains is the principal factor affecting the temperature. 
With soils of the same moisture content the soil upon which 
there is a growing crop will be cooler than the one without 
vegetation. 

Equipment-. — 1. A soil auger. 

2. Eleven chemical thermometers. 

3. Fifteen feet of picture wire. 

Directions. — Go to a garden or field where there is culti- 
vated ground and also ground growing a crop such as grass, 
alfalfa, clover, or any other dense-growing crop that shades 
the ground thoroughly. 

With the soil auger make holes in both the cultivated and 
the cropped ground to a depth of 3 inches, 6 inches, 1 foot, 
2 feet, and 3 feet. In choosing a location for the holes care 
should be taken to place them where the ground has the same 
general direction of slope and the same angle of slope. 

19 



20 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Place a thermometer in each hole. The thermometers 
should be lowered into the holes that are two and three feet 
deep by means of picture wire attached to the thermometer 
and held at the top by being fastened to a short stick. It is 
advisable to wrap with paper the bulbs of the thermometers 
used in taking temperatures at a depth of two and three feet. 
The paper wrapped around the bulb serves as an insulation, 
and thus prevents sudden changes in the reading of the ther- 
mometer. This makes it possible to remove the thermometer 
from the hole and read it before the reading changes. If 
wet paper is used in wrapping the bulbs, it should be allowed 
to dry thoroughly before the thermometers are used. 

Take the temperature of the air four feet above the sur- 
face of the ground and also of the soil in each field at 
the depths indicated. Make temperature readings fifteen 
minutes after the thermometers are placed, and each succeed- 
ing fifteen minutes for one hour. Record the readings in the 
accompanying outline. 

Discuss fully the results of the exercise and account 
as fully as possible for the facts observed. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Why should the slope of the fields be the same upon which the 
temperature of the soil is taken ? 

2. What effect has the slope of the land upon the temperature of 
the soil ? 

3. Is the effect of the slope of the land upon the temperature 
of the soil ever of practical importance ? When ? 

4. Why should not thermometers be used that have the bulbs 
wrapped in wet paper ? 

5. What effect has growing vegetation upon the temperature 
of the soil? 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 



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22 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISES 6 AND 7 
A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY 

Object. — To determine the amount of capillary water in 
a cultivated and in an uncultivated soil. 

Explanation. — Capillary soil water is the water in the 
soil that may be used by plants. It is held in the soil as a 
thin film surrounding the soil particles. It is free to move 
by the force of capillarity from a moist to a drier portion of 
the soil. All capillary water evaporates from the soil when 
it is thoroughly dried in the air. 

Equipment. — 1. Soil auger 3 feet in length. 

2. Six one-quart mason jars. 

3. A piece of oilcloth 18 inches square. 

4. Twelve tin pie pans 6 inches in diameter. 

5. Balances weighing to half a gram. 

Directions. — Secure a sample of soil from a garden or 
field where the ground has been kept cultivated all summer, 
and another sample from the edge of the garden or edge of 
the field where the ground has not been cultivated, and where 
the weeds and grass have been allowed to grow. 

Clear the surface soil of all trash and vegetation, and where 
the ground has been cultivated, brush back the loosest of the 
surface soil so that it will not roll down into the auger hole 
while removing the sample. 

23 



24 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 




A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY 25 

Force the auger into the soil by turning until it has en- 
tered three or four inches. 

Remove the auger by pulling with a backward twisting 
motion. This enables the auger to be pulled more easily and 
prevents the breaking off of the soil around the sample hole. 

When the auger has been withdrawn, remove the soil 
to the oilcloth provided for this purpose and transfer it 
immediately to a quart mason jar. 

Repeat this operation, forcing the auger into the ground 
three or four inches at a time, until the sample is secured 
to a depth of twelve inches. 

Cap the mason jar tightly and mark with a label that 
gives the treatment of the soil, its character, and depth, and 
the date. 

Place the auger in the hole and move it up and down 
several times, turning it slightly for the purpose of cleaning 
the walls of the hole so that the samples of the second and 
third feet may be removed without coming in contact with 
the surface soil. 

Remove the soil loosened in enlarging the hole by sinking 
the auger just to the depth reached in taking the first foot 
sample. Discard the soil removed in this operation. 

Secure a sample of the soil of the second foot (12 to 24 
inches) in the same manner as described for the first foot. 
Care should be taken to remove any surface soil that may 
adhere to the second foot sample as it is removed from the 
hole. 

After the second foot sample has been placed in a mason 
jar and properly labeled, secure a sample of the third foot 
(24 to 36 inches) by sinking the auger an additional 12 



26 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

inches in the same manner as that described in taking the 
first and the second foot samples. 

Samples from at least three holes on both the cultivated 
and the uncultivated fields should be secured. The soil from 
each of the three holes for the first foot of the cultivated 
field should be placed in the same mason jar. A second 
mason jar should be used for the three samples from the 
second foot, and a third mason jar for the three samples from 
the third foot. 

On the uncultivated field three samples from the first 
foot should be placed in one mason jar, three samples from 
the second foot in another jar, and the three samples from 
the third foot in a third jar. Thus for the two fields six 
jars will be required, and each jar will contain a composite 
of three soil samples. 

See that all jars are properly labeled, and that the tops 
are screwed on tightly, so that no soil moisture can escape 
by evaporation. 

Take the samples into the laboratory and set them aside 
for the next laboratory period. 

At the next laboratory period determine the moisture in 
duplicate for each sample of soil secured. Before the jars 
are opened to take the samples for the moisture determina- 
tions, the contents should be thoroughly mixed by shaking. 
The shaking cannot be done too thoroughly. 

Number a drying pan to correspond with the sample 
of soil to be studied. Weigh this pan and record the weight. 
Weigh into the pan 200 grams of the soil. In the same 
manner weigh out another 200-gram sample of the same 
soil as a duplicate. 



A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY 27 

Weigh out two 200-gram lots of each of the other samples 
to be studied. 

Spread the soil out over the bottom of the weighing pan 
in a thin layer and put in some convenient place to dry. 
After four days drying weigh each sample and record weight. 
Repeat the drying and weighing each day until a constant 
weight is obtained. The loss in weight represents the capil- 
lary water content of the soil. 

Determine the percentage of capillary moisture computed 
on the weight of the air-dry soil. Tabulate the results in 
the accompanying outline. 

QUESTIONS 

1 . Which foot contains the largest amount of water ? 

2. Which soil contains the most water, the cultivated or the 
uncultivated ? 

3. Discuss the reasons for the difference in moisture formerly in 
the two soils. 

4. From the moisture determination, figure the number of pounds 
of water there would be in the acre three feet of soil in the cultiva- 
ted and uncultivated field, weight of soil the acre foot 3,500,000 
pounds. 



28 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 























































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STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 29 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 8 
THE RISE OF CAPILLARY WATER IN SOILS 

Object. — To compare the rate of the rise of capillary 
water in soils of different texture. 

Explanation. — Capillary water is held in the soil as a 
thin film surrounding the soil particles. It moves by the 
force of capillarity from a moist to a drier part of the soil. 
Capillary water will move upward through the soil if the 
soil above is drier than the soil below. The height to which 
capillary water will rise in the soil depends upon the soil 
texture. In a coarse-grained soil it rises very rapidly, but 
for only a short distance. In a fine-grained soil it rises 
slowly, but to a greater height. Capillary water rises in the 
soil until the force of capillarity is overcome by the force 
of gravity. 

Equipment. — 1. Four glass tubes 3 feet long and 1 
inch in diameter. 

2. A tube rack for holding the tubes. 

3. A pan for water in which to immerse the bottom of 
the tubes. 

4. Cheesecloth. 

5. String. 

6. One-foot rule. 

7. Air-dry soil : gravel, sand, loam, and clay. 

30 



THE RISE OF CAPILLARY WATER IN SOILS 31 

Directions. — Tie pieces of cheesecloth over one end of 
each of the four glass tubes. 

Fill each tube with a different type of air-dry soil. In 
filling, the tubes should be placed upon the floor with the 
end tied with cheesecloth down. The soil may be poured 
into the tube, using a tin funnel or a paper funnel made 
from a sheet of paper. 

Place the tubes in the tube rack in such a manner that 
the ends are in the pan. 

When all the tubes are in position, fill the pan with water 
to a depth of two inches. Take the exact time when the 
water is added. 

Make readings of the height to which the water has 
risen in the soil at the end of 5 minutes, 15 minutes, 30 
minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 
4 days, 5 days, and 6 days. 

Record your measurements in the accompanying outline 
form. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In which soil was the rise of water the most rapid? 

2. In which soil was the rise of water the highest ? 

3. Is the fact that water can rise from a wetter to a drier soil 
of any value to growing crops ? When ? 

4. Which of the soils used would make the best subsoil ? Why ? 

5. What effect would a layer of gravel two feet in thickness in 
the upper subsoil have upon growing crops in a period of dry 
weather ? Why ? 



32 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

























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STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 33 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 9 
THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS 

Object. — To compare the rate of percolation of water 
through soils of different texture. 

Explanation. — The capacity of soils to absorb water that 
falls as rain depends upon its texture, or the size of the soil 
particles. A coarse-textured soil absorbs moisture rapidly, 
but in such a soil the water percolates through it quickly, 
and thus a large part of the rain that is absorbed is lost 
from the soil as percolating water. A fine-grained soil 
absorbs rain water slowly, but holds in the soil a larger 
portion of the water that is absorbed. An ideal soil is one 
that is coarse enough to absorb moisture with fair rapidity, 
yet fine enough to retain a large portion of the moisture 
absorbed. 

The condition of the surface of the soil also affects the 
capacity of a soil to absorb moisture. A soil that is hard 
and compact at the surface will absorb moisture much more 
slowly than one that is loose and open. Thus, plowing the 
ground when it is compact or cultivating it when it is crusted, 
favors the absorption and percolation of moisture into the soil. 

Equipment. — 1. Six percolation cylinders with rack and 
supply tank. 

2. Six beakers 400 or 500 c.c. 

34 



THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS 



35 




Fig. 3. — Equipment suitable for demonstrating percolation 
of water in 



36 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

3. Graduated cylinders 100 c.c. 

4. Cheesecloth. 

5. Shears. 

6. Eighteen inches rubber tubing }-inch diameter. 

7. Three soils: sand, loam, and clay. 

Directions. — Cut a disk of cheesecloth just large 
enough to cover the bottom of each tube. Place the 
cheesecloth in the bottom of each tube. Fill with soil 
the tubes provided for the purpose within one inch of 
the overflow pipes. Fill two tubes with sand, two with 
loam, and two with clay. Place a half-inch layer of gravel 
on the surface of each to prevent displacement of the 
soil by running water. Place the tubes in the rack and 
connect the overflow pipes with short pieces of rubber 
tubing. 

Fill the supply tank with water and invert it in place 
over the soil tubes. The supply tank will maintain a water 
level automatically. 

Note the time at which water was applied. 

Place beakers under each tube to catch the drip water. 
Note the time at which the water starts to flow from each 
tube. 

When the flow becomes constant, which will be ten or 
fifteen minutes after the flow starts, collect the water which 
percolates through each soil in fifteen minutes. Measure 
the water carefully and record the amount in the accompany- 
ing outline form. 

Repeat the process of percolation and measurements twice. 
Record the amount of water percolating for each fifteen- 
minute period in the outline form. 



THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS 37 



QUESTIONS 

1. In which soil was percolation the most rapid ? The slowest ? 

2. Will a soil that is coarse and sandy absorb rain rapidly? 
Will it hold the water well ? 

3. Which soil would be the best farm soil ? Give your reasons. 

4. Would plant roots, earthworms, molds, and other animals 
help water to percolate in loam and clay soil ? 

5. Would alfalfa be a good crop to plant on loam or clay soil to 
assist percolation ? 



38 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 

The Percolation of Water in Soils 



Tube 


Kind of 
Soil 


Time Per- 
colation 

Starts 


Water Percolating in 15 Minutes 


Number 


1st Period 


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STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 39 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 10 
THE WEIGHT OF SOIL PER CUBIC FOOT 

Object. — To determine the weight of soil per cubic 
foot. 

Explanation. — The weight of soil depends upon the 
weight of the material of which the soil is composed and the 
amount of open space or pore space in the soil. If a cubic 
foot of soil contained no pore space and were composed 
entirely of rock particles, it would weigh a little more than 
two and one half times as much as a cubic foot of water, or 
about 165 pounds per cubic foot. A cubic foot of soil 
never weighs this much. A soil always contains some pore 
space, and this reduces its weight. A soil also contains some 
organic matter, and since organic matter is lighter than the 
rock particles, the more organic matter it contains the less 
it weighs. Thus the weight of soil per cubic foot varies 
with its organic matter content and the amount of pore space 
in the soil. 

Equipment. — 1. Four soil tubes, like those used in 
Ex. 9. 

2. Cheesecloth. 

3. Shears. 

4. Torsion balances weighing to half a gram. 

5. Four soils: gravel, sand, loam, and clay. 

40 



THE WEIGHT OF SOIL PER CUBIC FOOT 41 

Directions. — Cut disks of cheesecloth to cover the open- 
ings in the bottom of the tubes. Place the cheesecloth 
in position in the tubes. Number and weigh the tubes. 
Record weight in accompanying outline form. 

Fill the four tubes level full with air-dried gravel, sand, 
loam, and clay, respectively. Compact the soils in each 
tube by holding the filled tube three inches above a book 
and letting the tube drop bottom downward on the book. 
Compact the contents of each tube by letting it drop from a 
height of three inches three times. 

After compacting, again fill the tubes level full and stroke 
with a straight edge. 

Weigh and record weight of tube and soil. 

Empty the tubes, refill with the same soil, and weigh 
again as a duplicate determination. 

Record duplicate weighings. 

Measure the diameter and height of the tubes and com- 
pute the number of cubic inches of soil contained in each. 

Calculate the weight of the soil per cubic foot. 

Calculate the weight of an acre of the different soils to a 
depth of one foot. 

Tabulate all weighings and calculations in the following 
outline form. 



42 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



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STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 43 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 11 
CAPACITY OF SOILS TO HOLD MOISTURE 

Object. — To determine the capacity of different types of 
soils to hold moisture and to study the effect of organic 
matter on the moisture-holding capacity of the soil. 

Explanation. — Soil water is held in the soil partly as 
a thin film surrounding the soil particles and partly as an 
accumulation of water in the pore spaces of the soil. If 
a soil is saturated with water, all its pore space will be filled, 
and the capacity of a soil to absorb water will be determined 
by the amount of its total pore space. If the water is allowed 
to drain away from the saturated soil, the free water will 
escape. After the free water has percolated away, the water 
which remains will represent the amount of film water that 
the soil will hold. 

Different types of soils differ in the amount of pore space 
they contain and in the amount of surface exposed around 
the soil particles, and therefore in the amount of free and 
film water that they can hold. Other things being equal, 
the soil having the smallest-sized particles will have the 
greatest amount of pore space and will hold the most water. 

Organic matter affects the water-holding capacity of the 
soil. Those soils of the same texture supplied with the most 
organic matter will absorb and hold the most water. Or- 

44 



CAPACITY OF SOILS TO HOLD MOISTURE 45 

ganic matter holds the soil particles apart, gives a greater 
amount of pore space, and thus increases the total water- 
absorbing power of the soil. Well-decayed organic matter 
is spongy in nature. It has great ability to absorb and hold 
water itself, just as a sponge holds water. Therefore, it greatly 
increases the water-retaining power of the soil. 

Equipment. — 1. Four soil tubes, the same as used in 
Ex.8. 

2. A four-gallon crock. 

3. Balances weighing to half a gram. 

4. Cheesecloth. 

5. Pair of shears. 

6. Wash pan. 

7. Four pieces of glass three inches square. 

8. Well-decayed barnyard manure. 

9. Three soils : sand, loam, and clay. 

Directions. — Cut disks of cheesecloth to cover the open- 
ings in the bottom of the tubes. Place the cheesecloth 
in position in the tubes. 

Number and weigh the four tubes; record weight in ac- 
companying outline form. 

Fill the tubes to within one inch of the top with the fol- 
lowing soils : 

No. 1. Sand No. 3. Clay 

No. 2. Loam No. 4. Sand and manure. 

Prepare the sand and manure for tube No. 4 by mixing 
ten parts of sand with one part of manure. Proportions 
determined by weight. Weigh and record weight of all 
tubes filled with soil. 

Place the tubes in the four-gallon crock provided for the 



46 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

purpose. Fill the crock with water until the water stands 
about level with the top of the soil in the tubes. 

Take the time that the water was added. Note the time 
that the first moisture appears on the top of the soil in each 
tube. Record time required for water to appear in each 
case. 

Allow the tubes to remain in the water until the soil is 
thoroughly saturated. This will be about ten minutes 
after water appears on the surface of the last soil. 

Remove the tubes one at a time, wipe off the excess water 
with a towel, and quickly weigh. Record weights. 

Place the tubes on a draining shelf and cover with glass 
plates to prevent evaporation of water at the surface of the 
soil. 

Weigh after standing 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 day, 
2 clays, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, 6 days. Wipe excess Water 
from bottom of the tube each time before weighing. Record 
each weight in the outline form. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a saturated soil ? 

2. What effect has organic matter upon the water-holding power 
of the soil ? 

3. Calculate the per cent of water held by each soil the sixth day. 

4. Calculate the number of pounds of water retained per cubic 
foot of dry soil. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



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48 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 12 
SOIL DRAINAGE 

Object. — To study the effect of standing water in the 
soil upon the growth of plants. 

Explanation. — A plant, to develop properly, must be 
grown in a soil supplied with both air and water in proper 
proportions. When the soil contains too much water, all 
the spaces between the soil particles are filled, and there is 
no room for air. A plant growing in a soil in this condition 
will not thrive because its roots will not receive sufficient 
air. The water must be removed from a saturated soil so 
that air can enter before crops will grow well. This can 
best be accomplished by means of tile drainage. 

Equipment. — 1. Two chemical thermometers. 

2. Two one-gallon flower pots. 

3. A pound of paraffin. 

4. A two-quart saucepan in which to melt paraffin. 

5. A one-foot rule. 

6. Graduated cylinder, 100 c.c. 

7. A few grains of corn. 

8. Loam soil, and a small amount of gravel. 
Directions. — Melt the paraffin and dip one flower pot 

so that it is covered with a thin coating of paraffin. 
Allow the paraffin to cool and solidify slightly. While 
e 49 



50 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

the paraffin is still soft, plug up the hole in the bottom of 
the pot. 

Place an inch of gravel in the bottom of the second pot 
to insure good drainage and see that the hole in the bottom 
of the pot remains open. 

Fill both pots to within one inch of the top with loam 
soil. 

Add water slowly by means of the graduated measure to 
the soil in the paraffined pot until it has absorbed all that it 
will. This will require twenty or thirty minutes. Record 
the amount of water added. Add the same amount of water 
to the unparaffined pot, allowing any water that will to 
escape at the bottom of the pot through the drain. Place 
the two pots in the window of the laboratory where they will 
receive sunlight. 

Let the pots stand two days. At the end of two days 
plant three grains of corn in each pot at a depth of two 
inches. 

Place a thermometer in each pot with the bulb two inches 
below the surface soil and record the temperature of the soil 
at the time the corn was planted. Take the temperature 
every two days for thirty days. Record data in the accom- 
panying outline form. 

Add enough water every three days to the pot with good 
drainage to keep the corn growing well. Add the same 
amount of water to the poorly drained paraffined pot. 

Measure the height of growth of plants when temperature 
of the soil is taken. 

At the end of thirty days remove the plants from both 
pots and examine the root growth. 



SOIL DRAINAGE 



51 



QUESTIONS 

1. In which pot did the plants make the best growth ? 

2. How do you account for the difference in growth ? 

3. Was there any difference in the color of the plants in the two 
pots ? How do you account for this difference ? 

4. What was the difference in temperature of the soil in the two 
pots ? How do you account for this difference ? 

5. Would this difference in temperature have any effect on the 
growth of the plants ? 

6. In which pot did the roots go the deeper ? Why ? 

7. Can a farmer expect the best growth of corn on a field poorly 
drained ? 

8. How can the farmer improve the drainage of a poorly drained 
field? 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 

Table for Recording Temperature of Soil and Growth of 
Plants in Poor and Well Drained Soil 



Soil 


Observation 


Temperature of Soil in Degrees F. 
Growth of Plants in Inches 




2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


Well 


Temperature 
































Drained 


Plant growth 
































Poorly 


Temperature 
































Drained 


Plant growth 

































52 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 13 
SOIL MULCHES 

Object. — To determine the amount of water that evap- 
orates from the soil when cultivated at different depths 
and when covered with different material. 

Explanation. — A soil mulch is any covering placed upon 
the soil that prevents the evaporation of moisture. There 
are two kinds of soil mulches, natural soil mulches and arti- 
ficial soil mulches. An artificial soil mulch is any material 
such as straw, sawdust, or stones placed upon the soil to pre- 
vent evaporation, while a natural soil mulch is the loosened 
surface of the soil itself produced by cultivation. Natural 
soil mulches are the most practical because they can usually 
be produced at the smallest cost. Any implement of culti- 
vation that leaves the surface soil loose and mellow will 
produce a good natural soil mulch. 

Equipment. — 1 . Four evaporation cylinders. 

2. A wash pan. 

3. A long-bladed knife or spatula. 

4. Scales weighing to one quarter of a pound and having 
a capacity of fifty pounds. 

5. A small amount of cut straw. 

Directions. — Fill the four evaporation cylinders to within 
one inch of the top with fine air-dried loam soil. 

Fill the water-supply tubes on the cylinders with water. 

53 




FlG> 4._a cylinder suitable for demonstrating the effect of mulches on 
evaporation of water from soils. Made of galvanized iron. Dimensions 
of cylinder eighteen inches long and four in diameter. The bottom of 
the cylinder is incased in a water jacket. The water in the jacket enters 
the soil by means of perforations near the bottom of cylinder. 

54 



SOIL MULCHES 55 

Let the cylinders- stand until the soil appears damp at the 
surface in all the cylinders. This may require several 
hours, and it may be necessary to replenish the water in the 
supply tubes during this period of time. 

After capillary water appears at the top of the soil on all 
the cylinders they should be treated as follows : l 

No. 1. No treatment. 

No. 2. Cultivated one inch deep. 

No. 3. Cultivated three inches deep. 

No. 4. Covered with two inches of cut straw. 

Cylinders 2 and 3 should be cultivated by removing the 
soil to the required depth into a wash pan by means of a 
long-bladed knife. Thoroughly mix the soil and return it in 
a loose condition to the cylinder. Just sufficient soil should 
be returned to the cylinder to bring it to within one inch of 
the surface. Discard any surplus soil. 

Cylinder 4, on which the cut straw is used as a mulch, 
should be prepared by removing two inches of the soil and 
replacing the soil with two inches of finely cut straw. 

When the mulches are in place, fill the supply tubes to the 
same level with water. Cork the tubes to prevent evapora- 
tion. Weigh the cylinders and record the weight in the 
accompanying outline form. 

Repeat the weighings each day for six days. 

Determine the surface area of the cylinders and compute 
the number of tons of water evaporated per acre in each case 
during a period of one week. 

Tabulate your results in the accompanying outline form. 

1 The cylinders may be filled at one laboratory period and the 
mulches placed in the cylinders at the next period. 



56 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



QUESTIONS 

1. Which was the best mulch? 

2. Which depth of cultivation saved the most moisture? 

3. Was there any difference in the amount of water evaporated 
from day to day ? Can you account for this difference ? 

4. Does the farmer ever use soil mulches ? When ? 

5. How often should the farmer cultivate his fields to keep a 
good soil mulch ? 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



57 



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58 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 14 

THE EFFECT OF UNDECAYED ORGANIC MATTER 
ON THE RISE OF SOIL MOISTURE 

Object. ' — To study the effect of plowing under undecayed 
organic matter on the rise of soil moisture. 

Explanation — Moisture moves from a wetter to a drier 
portion of the soil by means of capillarity. In order that 
capillary movement of moisture may take place the soil 
particles must be in close contact. If the soil particles are 
not in close contact, capillary movement of moisture cannot 
take place. When large amounts of barnyard manure or 
rank growths of green plant material are plowed under in the 
soil, the soil particles are held apart by this layer of material 
and the capillary rise of water cannot take place in the 
surface soil. If a crop is planted on a soil in this condition, 
it will be unable to secure moisture from the lower soil in its 
early stages of growth, and if the season is dry, will suffer 
greatly for water. It is, therefore, undesirable to plow under 
barnyard manure, straw, or green manure just before plant- 
ing a crop. If manure is to be used just before planting, it 
should be applied lightly as a top dressing. 

Equipment. — 1. Three glass tubes, rack, and pan, like 
those used in Ex. 8. 

2. Cheesecloth. 

59 



60 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

3. Shears. 

4. String. 

5. Loam soil. 

6. A small amount of green grass. 

7. A small amount of manure. 

Directions. — Tie a piece of cheesecloth over the end of 
each of the glass tubes. 

Fill the tubes with soil to a height of twelve inches. In 
filling, the tubes may be placed on the desk or floor with 
the end tied with cheesecloth down. 

Place the tubes in the tube rack in such a manner that 
the lower ends are in the pan which is to be used later as 
a container for water. 

Number the tubes. Treat the tubes as follows : 

No. 1. Place two inches of green grass cut into small 
pieces in the tube over the top of the soil and fill the tube to 
the top with loam soil. 

No. 2. Place two inches of finely pulverized barnyard 
manure in the tube over the top of the soil and fill the tube 
to the top with loam soil. 

No. 3. Fill with loam soil as a check. 

When all the tubes are filled and in position, fill the pan 
with water to a depth of two inches. Take the exact time 
of adding the water. 

Make readings of the height to which the water has risen 
in each tube at the end of 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour, 
1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, and 6 days. 

Record your measurements in the accompanying outline 
form. Describe fully the lesson that you have learned from 
conducting this exercise. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 



61 



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62 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICLUTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 15 
COLLECTING MATERIAL FOR STARTING PLANTS 

Object. — To collect and store material to be used for 
grafting and making cuttings. 

Explanation. — Twigs and branches for grafting and cut- 
tings must, be collected when they are in a dormant stage. 
This can usually be best accomplished in the fall soon after 
the leaves have fallen. They should be stored in a cellar 
where they will not freeze and where they will remain moist. 

Equipment. — 1. A sharp knife. 

2. A barrel or box for storing cuttings. 

Directions. — Go into an orchard where the variety of the 
trees and quality of the apples are known. Collect twigs 
only from trees that are thrifty and that produce a good 
quality of apples. Use wood of the previous season's growth. 
Collect two hundred twigs, ranging in length from four to ten 
inches. Tie them in bundles of twenty-five each. Label 
each bundle with the name of the variety. 

Go into a vineyard and select twigs from grapevines. Col- 
lect fifty twigs from grapevines that produce a good quality 
of grapes. These twigs should be from five to ten inches 
long. Label them with the name of the variety and tie 
them in bundles of twenty-five each. 

Go into a wood lot and select twigs from willow or cotton- 

63 



64 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

wood trees. Collect one hundred twigs of the previous 
season's growth. Tie them in bundles of twenty-five each. 

Partly fill the barrel or box with sawdust, sand, or moss. 
Carefully place the bundles of twigs in the barrel or box and 
cover completely, filling in with the sawdust, sand, or moss. 
The material should be moistened and not allowed to dry 
out. The apple twigs collected in this exercise will be used 
in Ex. 55 for grafting, and the other material will be used in 
Ex. 77 for making cuttings. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 65 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 16 
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE WHEAT PLANT 

Object. — To study the germination of the wheat kernel 
and the early growth and development of the plant. 

Explanation. — The kernel of wheat incloses a living 
plant in the dormant stage. The germ is the living part of 
the kernel from which the shoot and roots develop. When 
the kernel or seed is placed in the soil under proper condi- 
tions of moisture and temperature, it absorbs moisture and 
begins to grow. The food for the young plantlet is furnished 
by the endosperm. 

When the kernel of wheat germinates, it sends out three 
temporary roots. As the plant continues to grow it sends 
out permanent roots. The depth at which the permanent 
roots occur depends upon the condition of the soil. If the 
wheat is seeded at a medium depth, the temporary and per- 
manent root systems will develop at about the same place. 
If the wheat is seeded very deeply, the permanent roots will 
develop above the temporary roots and near the surface of 
the soil. 

Equipment. — 1. Plants of wheat one, two, three, and four 
weeks old, seeded one inch deep. 

2. Plants of wheat two and four weeks old, seeded three 

inches deep. 

66 



THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OP THE WHEAT PLANT 67 



Directions. — Dig up a number of small wheat plants for 
this study. Be careful not to break the roots in removing 
the plants from the 
soil. Remove the 
dirt which clings to 
the roots, by wash- 
ing. Make a study 
of plants one week 
old, two weeks old, 
three weeks old, and 
four weeks old, 
seeded one inch 
deep. Also make a 
study of plants two 
weeks old and four 
weeks old, seeded 
three inches deep. 
(In determining age 
of plant count time 
from date of seed- 
ing.) 

Make drawings of 
the plants at the 
different stages of 
growth and at the 
different depths of 
seeding indicated. 

Show in the drawings the three temporary roots which 
develop first, and in other drawings show the permanent 
roots which develop somewhat later and are sent out in 




Fig. 5. — Young wheat plants. A, two days 
after planting; B, five days after planting; 
C, three plants the same age planted at dif- 
ferent depths. 



68 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

whorls from the nodes. Show how the distance between the 
temporary roots and the whorl of permanent roots depends 
upon the depth of planting. Show how the older plants 
begin to tiller, by sending up new stems. The drawings 
should include the root system, stems, and leaves and their 
arrangement. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 69 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



70 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 17 
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE RYE PLANT 

Object. — To study the germination of the rye kernel 
and the early growth and development of the rye plant. 

Explanation. — The kernel of rye incloses a living plant 
in the dormant stage. The germ is the living part of the 
kernel from which the shoot and roots develop. When the 
kernel or seed is placed in the soil under proper conditions 
of moisture and temperature, it absorbs moisture and begins 
to grow. The food for the young plantlet is furnished by 
the endosperm. 

When the kernel of rye germinates, it sends out four tem- 
porary roots. As the plant continues to grow it sends out 
permanent roots. The depth at which the permanent 
roots occur depends upon the condition of the soil. If the 
rye is seeded at a medium depth, the temporary and per- 
manent root system will develop at about the same place. 
If the rye is seeded very deeply, the permanent roots will 
develop above the temporary roots and near the surface of 
the soil. 

Equipment. — 1. Plants of rye one, two, three, and four 
weeks old, seeded one inch deep. 

2. Plants of rye two and four weeks old, seeded three 
inches deep. 

71 



72 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Directions. — Dig up a number of small rye plants for 
this study. Be careful not to break the roots in removing 
the plants from the soil. Remove the dirt which clings 
to the roots, by washing. Make a study of plants one week 
old, two weeks old, three weeks old, and four weeks old, 
seeded one inch deep. Also make a study of plants two 
weeks old and four weeks old, seeded three inches deep. (In 
determining age of plant count time from date of seeding.) 

Make drawings of the plants at the different stages of 
growth and at the different depths of seeding indicated. 
Show in the drawings the four temporary roots which develop 
first, and in other drawings show the permanent roots 
which develop somewhat later and are sent out in whorls 
from the nodes. Show how the distance between the tem- 
porary roots and the whorl of permanent roots depends 
upon the depth of planting. Show how the older plants 
begin to tiller, by sending up new stems. The drawings 
should include the root system, stems, and leaves and their 
arrangement. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 73 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



74 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 18 
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE CORN PLANT 

Object. — To study the germination of the corn kernel 
and the early growth and development of the corn 
plant. 

Explanation. — The kernel of corn incloses a living plant 
in the dormant stage. The germ is the living part of the 
kernel from which the shoot and roots develop. When 
the kernel or seed is placed in the soil under proper con- 
ditions of moisture and temperature, it absorbs moisture and 
begins to grow. The food for the young plantlet is fur- 
nished by the endosperm until the root system becomes 
established. 

When the kernel of corn germinates, it sends out four 
temporary roots. The largest of the four roots grows 
directly out from the tip end of the germ. The other three 
roots grow out where the main root and shoot are attached 
to the kernel. Just above these three roots a little swelling 
appears, and from this point the permanent root system 
develops. The permanent root system develops about the 
same distance from the surface of the soil regardless of the 
depth of planting. 

Equipment. — 1. Corn plants one, two, three, and four 
weeks old, seeded one inch deep. 

75 



76 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

2. Corn plants two and four weeks old, seeded three inches 
deep. 

Directions. — Dig up a number of small corn plants for 
this study. Be careful not to break the roots in removing 
the plant from the soil. Remove the dirt which clings to 
the roots, by washing. Make a study of plants seeded one 
inch deep, one week old, two weeks old, three weeks old, 
and four weeks old. Also plants seeded three inches deep 
two weeks old and four weeks old. (In determining age 
of plant count time from date of seeding.) 

Make drawings of the plants at different stages of growth 
and at the different depths of seeding indicated. Show in 
the first drawing the four temporary roots which develop 
first, and in drawings of older plants the permanent root 
system which develops later. Show how the distance be- 
tween the temporary roots and the permanent root system 
depends upon the depth of planting. 

The drawings should include the root system, stalk, and 
leaves and their arrangement. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 77 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



78 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 19 



THE CORN KERNEL 



Object. — To make a study of the physical parts of corn 
kernels. To show the differences in texture in the different 
parts of the same kernel. To show the location of color 
in yellow, white, and red kernels of dent 
corn. 

Explanation. — There are six distinct 
types of corn: dent, flint, soft, sweet, 
pop, and pod. Dent corn is the type 
most generally grown. 

There are four distinct parts of the 
corn kernel. They are the seed coat, 
aleurone layer, endosperm, and embryo. 
The seed coat or hull is a thin outer layer 
covering the entire kernel. It serves as 
a protection for other parts of the kernel 
and constitutes about 7 per cent of the 
kernel. The aleurone layer lies just 
under the seed coat and serves as a second covering for 
the kernel. It constitutes about 10 per cent of the corn 
kernel. The endosperm comprises the greatest part of the 
corn kernel. It is composed largely of starch and is a 
source of food supply for the young plant just after 

79 




Fig 



- A corn ker- 
nel, a, crown 6tarch ; 
b, hull ; c, horny- 
starch; d, shoot of 
embryo ; e, germ ; 
/, root of embryo ; 
g, tip cup. 



80 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

germination. The endosperm is composed of two distinct 
classes of material : the hard, corneous, and the white, starchy 
endosperm. About 73 per cent of the entire kernel is endo- 
sperm. The embryo, also called the germ, is the living part 
of the corn kernel. It is located near the center and upper 
side of the kernel. It contains a large percentage of protein 
and oil. About 10 per cent of the kernel is embryo. 

Equipment. — 1. A wash basin. 

2. Kernels of white, yellow, and red corn. 

Directions. — Make a drawing showing the germ side 
of a kernel of corn. Make a drawing of a cross section and 
a longitudinal section of a kernel of corn. Show in the draw- 
ings the difference in structure of the different parts of the 
endosperm. 

Remove the hulls of white, yellow, and red kernels of dent 
corn that have been soaked in water for one day. Observe 
the location of color. 

Where is the white color located in white corn ? 

Where is the yellow color located in yellow corn ? 

Where is the red color located in red corn ? 

What is the color of the endosperm in red corn ? 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 81 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



82 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 20 
THE EAR OF CORN 

Object. — To make a study in detail of an ear of corn. 

Explanation. — Ears of corn vary in size, shape, number 
of rows, number of kernels per ear, and in their general 
appearance. This variation occurs in different types of 
corn, in different varieties of corn, and in different ears of 
corn of the same variety. 

Equipment. — 1. Two ten-ear samples of corn of different 
varieties. 

2. A foot rule. 

3. A yard tape line. 

4. A torsion balance, weighing to half a gram. 
Directions. — Number the ears from one to ten. Use 

the blank outline below and fill in the following data for 
the two samples of corn. Record the length and circum- 
ference of each ear in inches. Record the weight of each 
ear in grams. Record the number of rows per ear, the 
number of kernels per row, and the number of kernels for 
each ear. Record the measurements for each individual 
ear and the average for the sample. 



83 



84 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



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Counting seventy pounds to the bushel, how many average 
ears of the above sample are required for a bushel? 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 



85 



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ear 



Counting seventy pounds to the bushel, how many average 
ears of the above sample are required for a bushel? 



86 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



Determine the per cent of shelled corn in at least two of 
the ears studied. 



Ear Number 


l 


2 


Weight of shelled corn 






Per cent of shelled corn 







STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 87 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISES 21, 22, 23 
CORN JUDGING 

Object. — To acquire skill and obtain practice in select- 
ing seed ears of corn. 

Explanation. — Corn judging is estimating the value of 
ears of corn for seed. It requires a knowledge of different 
parts of the ear of corn and an appreciation of quality in 
corn characters. Ears of corn are different in size, shape, 
and appearance. A good corn judge should be able to select 
those ears that are best suited for planting. The score card 
is used to designate the parts of an ear of corn and the relative 
value of these parts. 

A good ear of corn should be nearly cylindrical, approx- 
imately 10 to 11 inches in length, and 7 to 7| inches in 
circumference. The kernels and cob should each be of 
a uniform color. The ear should be sound, the kernels 
should be firm on the cob, and the butt and tip should be 
covered with well-shaped kernels. There should be from six- 
teen to twenty rows of corn on the ear, and the kernels should 
be deep and well shaped, with little space between the rows. 
The germ should be large and bright, and the ear should be 
well matured. 

Different varieties of corn may differ in their standard 
of perfection. Early maturing varieties are usually smaller 

88 



CORN JUDGING 




Fig. 7. — Ea 



rs of corn that approach the ideal 



type. 



90 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

than those maturing later, and corn growing in districts of 
light rainfall has a more shallow kernel and a smoother 
surface than varieties growing in districts with an abundance 
of rainfall. Varieties of corn may also differ in color, some 
being white, some yellow, and some red. The sample of 
corn used for judging should contain ten ears of the same 
variety. 

Equipment. — 1. One ten-ear sample of corn for each 
member of the class. 

2. A foot rule. 

3. A tape line. 

Directions. — Number the ears from one to ten. Com- 
mence with ear number one and place in the first vertical 
column of the score card the scores that the ear merits. 
Deduct from the perfect score for all deficiencies of the ear. 



Description of Points of the Score Card 

Shape of Ear. — A desirable type of ear should be nearly 
cylindrical. This will permit an equal number of rows from 
butt to tip of ear, with kernels quite uniform in size. The 
rows should run straight the entire length of the ear, and the 
ear should present a uniform shape. If the ear is poor in 
shape, the score for shape should be decreased. 

Length of Ear. — The length of ear may be determined 
by measuring from the extreme butt to the extreme tip. 
If the ear is below the standard, it should be scored off accord- 
ing to the deficiency. If it is too long, it is likely to have 
broad and shallow kernels, with an inferior butt and tip, and 
the score should be reduced accordingly. 



CORN JUDGING 91 

Circumference of Ear. — The circumference of ear is 
determined by measuring the ear one third the distance 
from the butt to the tip. Small circumference of ear in- 
dicates a small amount of corn. Ears too large in circum- 
ference are likely to be immature, and are, therefore, of less 
value. For such deficiencies the score should be decreased. 

Color of Kernel. — A uniform color, true to the variety, 
indicates purity. If there is a difference in color, or if there 
are grains that differ in color from that of the variety stand- 
ard, a mixture is indicated, and the score should be reduced. 

Color of Cob. — Usually yellow varieties of corn have red 
cobs, and white varieties have white cobs. If the cob is 
not correct in color, a mixture is indicated, and the score 
should be reduced. 

Butt of Ear. ■ — The butt of the ear should be well filled 
out with kernels of uniform shape. 

Tip of Ear. — The rows of kernels should extend the full 
length of the ear, covering the tip with kernels of uniform 
size and shape. 

Shape of Kernels. — Desirable kernels should be wedge- 
shaped ; that is, they should be wider across the crown than 
at the tip of the kernel. The thickness should be about one 
half the width, and they should have a large, well-developed 
germ. The kernels on the different parts of the ear should 
be uniform in shape and size. This is essential to secure 
a uniform distribution in planting. 

Depth of Kernels. — The amount of corn on an ear depends 
largely upon the depth of the kernels. From this point 
of view it would seem desirable to have as deep a kernel 
as possible. Experiments seem to indicate, however, that 



92 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

kernels of medium depth are preferable to deeper ones, and 
will perhaps produce a larger yield and better quality of corn. 

Furrows between Rows. — If the crowns of the kernels 
are rounded off on top, there is likely to be space between the 
rows. This condition is usually associated with a shallow 
grain, and indicates a small per cent of corn. 

Space between Kernels at Cob. — The kernels should be 
close together at the tips. Space between the tips of the 
kernels, next to the cob, indicates immaturity and weak 
vitality. 

Composition and Feeding Value. — By far the largest part 
of the corn kernel is starch. It also contains protein and oil. 
The protein and oil are higher in feeding value than starch, 
and high content of these substances is indicated by a large 
per cent of the horny endosperm and large germ. 

Vitality. — It is essential that corn used for seed should 
be of strong vitality. The ear should be well matured. 
The kernels should be sound and firm on the cob. The 
germ should be large. Small, wrinkled, or dull-colored germs 
indicate low vitality. 

Soundness or Freedom from Injury. — Mold or fungous 
disease not only indicates decreased vitality, but it decreases 
the market value of the corn. Kernels that are cracked, 
or injured by various insects, are of less value, and should 
be scored against accordingly. 

Careful examination should be made of the various parts 
of the ear as given on the score card. In examining the 
kernels, two or more kernels should be removed from near 
the center of the ear so that a better estimate may be formed 
of their worth. If an ear is very poor in some quality, it 



CORN JUDGING 93 

may be scored very low or even zero for that point. After 
a score is given for each point the column should be added. 
The sum is the score of the ear. It requires a very good 
ear to score higher than 85 per cent. 

After the ears have been scored, place them in the order 
of their worth, placing the best ear first, the second-best 
ear second, etc., for the ten ears. 



94 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



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EXERCISE 24 
A STUDY OF SHELLED CORN 

Object. — To study corn with reference to its quality 
and commercial grade ; and to become familiar with different 
classes and grades of corn. 

Explanation. — Practically two thirds of the corn crop 
of the United States is produced in eight states: Illinois, 
Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, and 
Texas. Within these same eight states the live-stock in- 
dustry has been developed to the greatest extent. While 
corn is used almost exclusively as a food for live stock, large 
quantities are sold on the commercial market before reaching 
final destination. For the proper classification of corn of 
varying quality it is necessary to have a system of grading. 
In determining quality it is necessary to consider purity, 
condition, color, and size of kernels. 

Equipment. — 1. Four ten to twelve pound samples of 
corn representing different grades. 

2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 

3. A balance weighing to a half gram. 

Directions. — Weigh out fifty grams of corn from one of 
the samples, and make a detailed study of it. Use the out- 
line form " A Study of Shelled Corn " to record the results 
of the examination. Classify the sample of corn under ob- 

100 



A STUDY OF SHELLED CORN 101 

servation as yellow, white, or mixed, according to the rules 
governing the inspection and grading of corn that are in- 
cluded in this exercise. Record the class name in the col- 
umn for that sample number for classification. 

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make 
a detailed study for each of the divisions given below. 

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the 
sample into the following groups : corn, other grains, 
foreign matter. Weigh each group and record its weight 
and percentage in the blank form in the column of the sample 
number. Weigh to one half of one gram. Quantities less 
than one half of one gram may be indicated as " trace." 
All the groups of the division should total 100 per cent for 
purity. 

For the remainder of the determinations in the study 
of this exercise use twenty-five grams of the corn from which 
other grain and foreign matter have been removed. 

Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating 
this sample into the following groups : sound kernels ; 
cracked or broken kernels; rotten, decayed, or otherwise 
injured kernels. Weigh and record the weight and per cent of 
each group. The total for condition should be 100 per cent. 

Color. — The predominating colors in corn are white and 
yellow. Other common colors are red, speckled, and blue. 
Corn of the latter colors are less likely to be pure in color 
in large lots, and are usually designated as mixed. Make 
a study of color by separating the sample into the following 
groups : white, yellow, and mixed. Weigh and record the 
weight and per cent in each group. The total for color 
should be 100 per cent. 



102 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Size. — Separate the sample into the following groups for 
size : large kernels ; medium-size kernels ; small kernels. 
Weigh and record the weight and per cent of each group. 
The total for size should be 100 per cent. 

Separate from the sample one hundred average-size ker- 
nels. Weigh them and record their weight. Compare the 
weight of one hundred average-size kernels in the different 
samples studied. 

The weight per bushel may be determined by using the 
weight-per-bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel 
of the sample by pouring the corn in very lightly over the top 
or side of the tester and without shaking or packing. Draw 
the bar or straight edge once across the top of the tester so 
that it will be filled just level with the top. Adjust the 
tester by moving the weight out on the bar until it just bal- 
ances. The scale on the bar by the weight indicates the 
weight per bushel. Record weight per bushel of sample. 

The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing 
factors, and a grade is given according to the quality of the 
sample. The grain inspection departments of the various 
states provide rules for the inspection and grading of corn. 
The following rules govern the inspection of corn in Kansas : 

White Corn 

No. 1. White Corn. — Shall be pure white corn and sweet. 

No. 2. White Corn. — Shall be fifteen-sixteenths white and 
sweet. 

No. 3. White Corn. — Shall be fifteen-sixteenths white and 
sweet. 



A STUDY OF SHELLED CORN 103 

No. 4. White Corn. — Shall be fifteen-sixteenths white, 
but shall include tough, musty, and damaged corn. 

(Mixed corn and yellow corn have separate rules, but 
the rules are the same other than color. In yellow, seven- 
eighths is used instead of fifteen-sixteenths, as in white.) 

The per cent of moisture contained in corn affects its 
quality. Corn with a high per cent of moisture is usually 
tough and is given a lower grade. 

Corn to grade No. 1 is not allowed to have over 15 
per cent of moisture ; to grade No. 2 not over 16 per cent ; 
to grade No. 3 not over 19 per cent ; to grade No. 4 not 
over 22 per cent. 

Make a study of as many samples as the time given per- 
mits. 



104 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 

A Study of Shelled Corn 







Sample Number 




1 


2 


3 


4 


Classification 












Wt. 


Per 

Cent 


wt. 


Per 

Cent 


wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


fCorn .... 


















Purity < Other grains 


















[Foreign matter . 




















100 




100 




100 




100 




'Sound corn . 
Cracked or 

broken . . . 
Rotten, decayed, 

or injured . . 


















Con- 


















dition 






















100 


= 


100 




100 




100 


[White .... 
















Color I Yellow 


















[Other colors . 






















100 




100 




100 




100 


fLarge .... 


















Size < Medium . . . 


















[Small .... 






















100 




100 




100 




100 


Weight 
size k 
Weight 
Commei 


of 100 average- 
ernels .... 


















of one bushel 
*cial grade 



































Date 



Student's name 



EXERCISE 25 
A STUDY OF THE WHEAT HEAD 

Object. — To examine the head of wheat and become 
familiar with the shape and arrangement of its different 
parts. 

Explanation. — The head of wheat is commonly called a 
spike. It is made up of several parts, of which the grain is 
the most important. The head is composed of a single rachis 
and several spikelets. The spikelets are attached to the 
rachis. A fully developed spikelet has two or more kernels, 
usually only two. There is an outer glume, flowering glume, 
and a palea for each kernel, except when a third kernel de- 
velops. The third kernel of a spikelet does not have an outer 
glume. There is an undeveloped flower for each spikelet. 
Sometimes the spikelets near the base of the head fail to 
develop. The two divisions of a spikelet are similar in ar- 
rangement of parts. There is an outer glume on each side 
of the spikelet, and they partly inclose the flowering glumes. 
The uppermost part of the outer glume is called the beak. 
The notch just below the beak forms the shoulder, and the 
heavy line running from the beak to the base is called the 
keel. The flowering glume is just within the outer glume and 
bears the beard or awn. The kernel is inclosed by the flower- 
ing glume on the outside and by another husk called the palea 

105 



106 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 




A STUDY OF THE WHEAT HEAD 107 

on the inside. The germ of the kernel is at the base and it faces 
toward the outside. The crease is on the inside next to the 
palea. The brush end of the kernel extends upward. There 
is an undeveloped flower between the two divisions of the 
spikelet. The attachment of the spikelet to the rachis is 
called the rachilla. Figure 8 shows all the different parts of 
the spike. 

Equipment. — Heads of wheat sufficient to supply all 
members of the class. 

Directions. — Make two drawings of the entire head of 
wheat, one showing the side and one showing the edge view. 
Remove a single well-developed spikelet and make a drawing 
of it. Draw a single outer glume ; a single flowering glume; 
and the palea. Make a drawing of the kernel showing the 
crease side, one showing the germ side, and one showing the 
cross section. Remove all the spikelets from the head and 
make a drawing of the rachis. Make all drawings at least 
four times the natural size except the head and rachis. Make 
them in careful detail and name all the different parts. 

Fill out the following description for five average-size 
heads of wheat. 



108 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 





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STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 109 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



110 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 26 
A STUDY OF THE RYE HEAD 

Object. — To examine the head of rye and become 
familiar with the shape and arrangement of its different 
parts. 

Explanation. — The head of rye is commonly called a spike. 
It is made up of several parts, of which the grain is the most 
important. The head is composed of a single rachis and 
several spikelets. The spikelets are attached to both sides 
of the rachis. There are two divisions of the spikelet, each 
division containing one kernel. There is an outer glume, 
a flowering glume, and a palea for each kernel. The kernel is 
inclosed by the flowering glume on the outside and the palea 
on the inside. The flowering glume does not entirely inclose 
the kernel, and a small portion of it is exposed. The outer 
glume is small and does not inclose the flowering glume. The 
rye kernel is similar to the kernel of wheat, though it is some- 
what more slender, more pointed at the germ end, and the 
crease is not so deep. There are only two flowers in a spike- 
let, and both of them develop. 

Equipment. — Heads of rye sufficient to supply all the 
members of the class. 

Directions. — Make two drawings of the entire head of rye. 
Make a drawing showing the side view, then turn the head 

111 



112 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 9. — A, a head of rye; B, a single 
spikelet ; C, a kernel of rye showing 
germ side. 



one fourth way around and 
make the second drawing. 
Remove a single well- 
developed spikelet and 
make a drawing of it. 
Draw a single outer glume, 
a single flowering glume, 
and the palea. Make a 
drawing showing the crease 
side, one showing the germ 
side, and one showing the 
cross section of the kernel. 
Remove all the spikelets 
from the head and make 
drawing of the rachis. 
Make all drawings at least 
four times their natural 
size, except those of the 
head and rachis. Make 
them in careful detail and 
name all the different parts. 



A STUDY OF THE RYE HEAD 



113 



Fill out the accompanying outline for five average-size 
heads of rye. 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 





No. of Head 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


Length of head 












No. of spikelets 












No. of kernels for the head . . 












Average no. of kernels for each 
spikelet 












Give length of awns .... 












Give color of glumes .... 













114 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 115 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISES 27 AND 28 
A STUDY OF WHEAT 

Object. — To study samples of wheat with reference to 
their quality and commercial grade, and to become familiar 
with different classes and grades of wheat. 

Explanation. — The principal use of wheat is for the pro- 
duction of flour. Wheats differ in their milling value, de- 
pending largely upon the quality. In determining quality 
it is necessary to consider purity, soundness, color, texture, 
size, and other conditions of the kernel. The student should 
become familiar with the quality of different classes of wheat, 
such as hard winter, soft winter, hard spring, durum, etc. 
Representative samples of different classes and grades of 
wheat are used in this study. 

Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of wheat. 

2. Type samples of wheat, showing color and class. 

3. Balances weighing to one half of one gram. 

4. A weight-per-bushel tester. 

Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of wheat from one 
of the samples, and make a detailed study of it. Use the 
outline form " A Study of Wheat" to record the results of the 
examination. Compare the sample of wheat under observa- 
tion with named type sample for identification. Record the 
type name in the column for that sample number for classi- 
fication. 

116 



A STUDY OF WHEAT 117 

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make 
a detailed study of each of the divisions given below. 

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample 
into the following groups : wheat of class ; other wheats ; 
other grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record 
its weight and per cent of the sample in the blank form in the 
column of that sample number. Weigh to one half of one 
gram. Quantities less than one half gram may be indicated 
as "trace." All the groups of the division should total 100 
per cent for purity. 

For the remainder of the determinations in this exercise 
use ten grams of the wheat from which other grains and for- 
eign matter have been removed. This includes " wheat of 
class " and " other wheats/' as obtained by the first separa- 
tion. 

Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating the 
kernels of this sample into the following groups : sound ; 
broken ; shriveled ; sprouted ; heat damaged. Weigh and 
record the weight and per cent in each group. The total for 
soundness should be 100 per cent. 

Color. — Color in wheat is represented by different colors 
and shades, as amber, dark amber, yellowish, and white. 
Kernels subjected to adverse weather conditions are likely 
to be discolored, and are known as bleached. The kernels 
should be compared with type samples representing the dif- 
ferent colors found in wheat. Light amber is represented by 
durum wheat ; amber by the common hard winter wheats ; 
dark amber by hard winter wheats of a very dark color; 
yellowish includes those kernels which are yellow or have 
yellow sides, and are often found in the hard winter wheats. 



118 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

White wheats are represented by the very light colored wheats 
grown largely on the Pacific coast. Bleached wheat may be 
kernels of any color which have been badly discolored by 
adverse weather conditions. Make a study of the color by 
separating the sample into the following groups : light 
amber, amber, dark amber, yellow, white, and bleached. 
Weigh, and record the weight and per cent in each group. 
The total for color should be 100 per cent. 

Texture. — Texture in wheat may be classed as hard, 
medium, and soft. Texture is closely associated with color. 
Amber-colored wheats are usually hard in texture. Wheats 
that have a tendency to become yellowish are usually of a 
medium texture. Wheats that are yellow or white are likely 
to be soft. Texture may also be determined by crushing 
typical kernels. 

Make a study of the texture by separating the sample into 
the following groups : hard, medium, soft. Weigh, and record 
the weight and per cent in each group. The total for tex- 
ture should be 100 per cent. 

Size. — Divide the sample into the following groups : 
large kernels, medium kernels, and small kernels. Weigh 
and determine per cent of each group. Record weight and 
per cent in the blank form. The total for size should be 
100 per cent. 

Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh 
and record weight. Compare the weight of 100 average-size 
kernels in the different samples studied. The size of kernels 
differs in different classes of wheat. 

The weight per bushel is determined by using the weight- 
per-bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel of the 



A STUDY OF WHEAT 119 

sample by pouring the wheat in lightly over the top or sides 
of the tester without shaking or packing. Draw the bar 
or straightedge once across the top of the tester so that it 
will be filled just level to the top. Adjust the tester by 
moving the weight out on the bar until it just balances. The 
scale on the bar by the weight indicates the weight per bushel. 
Record weight per bushel of the sample. 

The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing 
factors, and a grade is given according to the quality of the 
sample. The grain inspection departments of the various 
states provide rules for the inspection and grading of wheat. 
The following rules govern the inspection of hard winter 
wheat for Kansas : 

Hard Winter Wheat 

No. 1. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the 
dark variety, sound, sweet, dry, plump, and clean, and shall 
weigh not less than sixty-one pounds to the bushel. 

No. 2. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the 
dark variety, sound, sweet, dry, plump, and clean, and shall 
weigh not less than fifty-nine pounds to the bushel. 

No. 3. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the 
dark variety, sound, sweet, dry; some grains may be 
bleached ; not clean or plump enough for No. 2 ; shall weigh 
not less than fifty-six pounds to the bushel. 

No. 4. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the 
dark variety, tough, sprouted, or from other causes so badly 
damaged as to render it unfit for No. 3. 

Other classes of wheat are graded in a similar manner. 

Make a study of as many other samples as the time permits. 



120 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
A Study of Wheat 









Sample Number 




1 


2 


3 


4 


Classification 












Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 

Cent 


Wt. 


Per 

Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 




Wheat of class . . 


















Purity 


Other wheat . . 
Other grains . . 
Foreign matter . 






















































Total . . . 




100 




100 




100 




100 




Sound kernels . 
Broken kernels 
Shriveled kernels 
Sprouted kernels 
Heat-damaged ker 
nels 


























































































Total . . . 




100 




100 




100 




100 




Light amber . . 
Amber .... 
Dark amber . . 
Yellowish . . . 
White .... 
Bleached . 






















































Color 






















































Total . . . 




100 




100 




100 




100 


t Hard (flinty) . . 


















Texture \ Medium . . . 


















1 Soft (starchy) . 


















Total . . . 




100 




100 




100 




100 


(• Large .... 


















Size \ Medium . . . 


















i Small .... 


















Total .... 




100 




100 




100 




100 


Weight of 100 average-size ker- 






































Commercial grade 









































Date 



Student's Name 



EXERCISE 29 
A STUDY OF RYE 

Object. — To study samples of rye with reference to their 
quality and commercial grade, and to become familiar with 
different grades of rye. 

Explanation. — Rye is used for the production of flour for 
bread, for malting purposes, and to some extent for feed for 
live stock. Rye is not extensively grown in the United 
States. There are not as many varieties of rye as of wheat. 
There is a variation in texture and color, but it is not as im- 
portant as in wheat. There is usually but one class of rye 
recognized on the commercial market. Different grades of 
rye are recognized, and the commercial grade given depends 
upon the quality. The student should become familiar with 
the different factors that affect the quality of rye. Repre- 
sentative samples of different grades of rye are used in this 
study. 

Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of rye. 

2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 

3. A balance weighing to one half gram. 

Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of rye from one of 
the samples and make a careful study of it. Use the ac- 
companying outline form "A Study of Rye," to record the 
results of the examination. 

121 



122 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make 
a detailed study of each of the divisions given below. 

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sam- 
ple into the following groups : rye ; other grains ; foreign 
matter. Weigh each group and record the weight and per 
cent. For the remainder of the determinations in this study 
use ten grams of rye from which other grains and foreign 
matter have been removed. 

Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating 
the kernels of the sample into the following groups : sound, 
broken, shriveled ; sprouted ; heat damaged, or otherwise 
injured. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent in each 
group. The total for soundness should be 100 per cent. 

Size. — Separate the sample into kernels of the following 
groups : large, medium, small. Weigh, and record weight 
and per cent of each group on the blank form. The total for 
size should be 100 per cent. 

Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh 
and record the weight of the sample on the blank form in 
the column for that sample number. Quantities less than 
one tenth of one gram may be indicated as " trace." 

The weight per bushel is determined by using the weight 
per bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel of the 
sample as described in Ex. 27. All samples of rye are 
placed in the same class for commercial grading and given a 
commercial grade similar to wheat. Designate the com- 
mercial grade of the sample. 



A STUDY OF RYE 



123 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 

A Study of Rye 







Sample Number 




1 


2 


3 


4 


Classification 












Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


rRye 


















Purity . 1 Other grains . . 


















v Foreign matter . . 


















Total 




too 




100 




100 




100 




'Sound .... 
Broken .... 
Shriveled .... 
Sprouted .... 
Heat damaged, or 






















































Soundness 





































Total 


100 




100 




100 




100 




















Size . . < Medium .... 


















Umall 


















Total 




100 




100 




100 




100 


Weight of 100 average-size ker- 
nels 










Weight per bushel ..... 










Commercia 


grade 











Date 



Student's Name 



EXERCISE 30 
A STUDY OF THE BARLEY HEAD 

Object. — To examine the head of barley and become 
familiar with the shape and arrangement of its different 
parts. 

Explanation. — The head of barley is commonly called a 
spike. It is made up of several parts, of which the grain is 
the most important. The head of barley is composed of a 
single rachis and several spikelets. The spikelets bear the 
grain and are attached to the rachis. A spikelet of barley 
is made up of two outer glumes, a flowering glume, a kernel, 
and palea. The outer glumes are small and awl-shaped and 
do not inclose the flowering glume as in wheat and oats. The 
flowering glume bears the beard or awn when present and 
incloses the greater part of the kernel. The palea incloses 
the inner side of the kernel. In most barleys the flower- 
ing glume and palea adhere to the kernel when threshed. 
Some varieties of barley, however, are hull-less. In hull-less 
barleys the flowering glume and palea do not adhere to 
the kernel. The germ is at the base of the kernel, as in 
wheat, and faces outward. The crease is on the inside 
next to the palea. There are both two-rowed and six-rowed 
barleys. 

In the six-rowed barleys the spikelets develop in groups of 

124 



A STUDY OF THE BARLEY HEAD 



125 



three on opposite sides of the rachis. In two-rowed barleys 
there is a single row of spikelets on each side of the rachis. 
There is an undeveloped spikelet on either side of the devel- 
oped spikelet. Each de- 
veloped spikelet contains 
but one kernel of barley. 
Figure 10 shows the differ- 
ent parts of the barley 
spike. 

Equipment. — Heads of 
barley for each member of 
the class. 

Directions. — Make" two 
drawings of the entire head 
of a six-rowed barley, one 
showing the side and one 
showing the edge view. 
Make a drawing of a group 
of three spikelets. Make 
a drawing of a single spike- 
let, showing the flowering 
and outer glume. Make 
drawings of the kernel, one 
showing the germ side and 
one showing the cross sec- 
tion. Remove all the 
spikelets and make a draw- 
ing of the rachis. Make all drawings at least four times the 
natural size, except the head and rachis. Make them in 
careful detail and name all the different parts. 




Fig. 10. — A, a head of six-rowed barley ; 
B, a single spikelet of barley ; C, a 
kernel of barley with glumes and 
palea removed. 



126 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Fill out the following description for four heads of barley 



Number of Head 


l 


2 


3 


4 


Kind of barley 










Length of head 










Number of kernels the head .... 










Length of awns if present 











STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 127 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



128 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 31 
A STUDY OF THE OAT HEAD 

Object. — To examine the oat head and become familiar 
with the shape and arrangement of its different parts. 

Explanation. — The head of oats is commonly called a 
panicle. It is made up of several parts, of which the oat grain 
is the most important. The head is composed of a branching 
stem and spikelets containing the grain. The branches of 
the panicle are attached in groups to the main stem. The 
spikelets are attached to these branches. 

Each spikelet has two or more kernels, usually only two. 
Each kernel is inclosed within a flowering glume and palea. 
The kernel, together with the flowering glume and palea, is 
known as the grain, and is inclosed within the outer glume. 
When the oat grain has an awn or beard, it grows out from 
the back of the flowering glume. A sterile flower often de- 
velops near the base of the second kernel. The flowering 
glume and palea adhere tightly to the kernel and are not 
removed by threshing. One kernel is a little larger than 
the other. The smaller kernel develops near the base of the 
larger kernel and is sometimes almost inclosed within the 
flowering glume of the larger kernel. Figure 11 shows the 
parts of the oat panicle. 

k 129 



130 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



Equipment. — Heads of oats for each member of the class. 

Directions. — Make a drawing of the entire head of oats, 
showing the arrangement of the spikelets. Remove a single 
well-developed spikelet and make a drawing of it. Draw a 
single outer glume, a single flowering glume, and the palea. 




Fig. 11. — A, a head of oats; B, a single spikelet; 
C, the oat kernel with glumes and palea removed, 
showing the germ side. 



Make a drawing of the kernel, showing the crease side, 
one showing the germ side, and one showing the cross section. 
Make all the drawings at least four times the natural size, 
except the one of the panicle. Make them in careful detail 
and name the different parts. 



A STUDY OF THE OAT HEAD 131 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



132 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 32 
A STUDY OF BARLEY 

Object. — To study samples of barley with reference to 
their quality and commercial grade ; and to become familiar 
with different classes and grades of barley. 

Explanation. — A large amount of barley is used as 
a grain feed for live stock on farms where it is produced. 
Approximately one half of the barley produced is sold on 
the commercial market, where it is finally used either for 
brewing or feeding purposes. The value of barley depends 
largely upon the quality of the grain. In determining quality 
it is necessary to consider purity, soundness, color, texture, 
size, and other conditions of the grain. The student should 
become familiar with different classes and grades of barley. 

Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of barley. 

2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 

3. A balance weighing to one half of one gram. 
Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of barley from 

one of the samples, and make a detailed study of it. Use 
the outline form "A Study of Barley" to record the results 
of the examination. Compare the sample of barley under 
observation with named type samples for identification. 
Record type name in the column for that sample number 
for classification. 

133 



134 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make 
a detailed study of each of the divisions given below. 

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the 
sample into the following groups : barley of class ; other 
barleys ; other grains ; foreign matter. 

Weigh each group and record the weight and per cent of 
the sample in the blank form in the column of the sample 
number. Quantities less than one tenth of one gram may 
be indicated as " trace." All the groups of the division 
should total 100 per cent for purity. 

For the remainder of the determinations in this study 
use ten grams of the barley from which other grains and 
foreign matter have been removed. This includes " barley 
of class " and " other barleys," as obtained by the first 
separation. 

Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating 
the sample into the following groups : sound kernels ; 
broken kernels ; shriveled kernels ; sprouted kernels ; other 
damaged kernels. Weigh and record the weight and per 
cent of each group. The total for soundness should be 100 
per cent. 

Color. — The color of barley may be inj ured by adverse 
weather conditions during harvesting. A bright light color 
is desirable. Make a study of color by separating the sample 
into the following groups : good color ; slightly bleached ; 
discolored. Weigh and record the weight and per cent in 
each group. The total for color should be 100 per cent. 

Texture. — Texture in barley may be classed as hard and 
soft. The barleys of hard texture are more vitreous and 
contain a higher per cent of protein than others. The 



A STUDY OF BARLEY 135 

barleys that are soft are usually higher in starch content. 
Crush typical kernels and observe their hardness. 

Size. — Separate the sample into the following groups 
for size : large, medium, small. Weigh and record the per 
cent of each group. The total for size should be 100 per 
cent. 

Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh 
them and record their weight. Compare the weight of 100 
average-size kernels in the different samples studied. The 
size of kernels differs in different classes of barley. The 
weight per bushel is determined by using the weight-per- 
bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel of the 
sample. 

The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing 
factors, and a grade is given according to the quality of the 
sample. The grain inspection departments of the various 
states provide rules for the inspection and grading of barley. 
The following rules govern the inspection of barley in Kansas : 

Barley 

No. 1. Barley. — Shall be sound, bright, sweet, clean, and 
free from other grain. 

No. 2. Barley. — Shall be sound, dry, and of good color. 

No. 3. Barley. — Shall include shrunken, stained, dry 
barley, unfit to grade No. 2. 

No. 4. Barley. — Shall include tough, musty, dirty barley. 

Make a study of as many other samples as the time permits. 



136 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
A Study of Barley 







Sample Number 




1 


2 


3 


4 


Classification 












Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 

Cent 




' Barley of class . . 

Other barleys . . 

Other grains . . . 

l Foreign matter . . 

Total .... 

Sound kernels . . 
Broken kernels . . 
Shriveled kernels 
Sprouted kernels 




































Purity . 








































100 




100 




100 




100 






























































































Total .... 




100 




100 




100 




100 


















Color . . 


Slightly bleached 




































Total .... 





100 




100 




100 




100 




Large 

Medium .... 

Small 

Total .... 
















Size . ■ 








































100 




100 




100 




100 


Weight of 100 average-size kernels 


















Weight of one bushel .... 


















Commercial trrade 







































Date Student's Name 



EXERCISE 33 
A STUDY OF OATS 

Object. — To study samples of oats with reference to 
their quality and commercial grade, and to become familiar 
with different classes and grades of oats. 

Explanation. — A large proportion of the oats produced 
in the United States is used as grain for live stock on farms 
where grown. Some oats is sold on the commercial market, 
a part of it being used for cereal foods and for feeding 
purposes. The value of oats depends largely upon the quality 
of the grain. In determining value it is necessary to con- 
sider purity, soundness, color, size, and other conditions of 
the grain. The student should become familiar with dif- 
ferent classes and grades of oats. 

Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of oats. 

2. Weight-per-bushel tester. 

3. Balance weighing to one half gram. 

4. Named type sample of oats. 

Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of oats from one 
of the samples and make a detailed study of it. Use the 
accompanying outline form " A Study of Oats" to record the 
results of the examination. Compare the sample of oats 
under observation with named type samples for identifica- 
tion. Record the type name in the column for that sample 

137 



138 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

number under classification in the accompanying outline 
form. 

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make 
a detailed study of each of the divisions given below : 

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample 
into the following groups : oats of class ; other oats ; other 
grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record the 
weight and per cent of the sample in the blank form in the 
column of that sample number. Quantities less than one 
tenth of one gram may be indicated as " trace." All the 
groups of the division should total 100 per cent for purity. 

For the remaining determinations in this study use ten 
grams of the oats from which other grains and foreign matter 
have been removed. 

Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating 
this sample into the following groups : sound kernels ; in- 
jured kernels. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent of 
each group. The total for soundness should be 100 per cent. 

Color. — There is considerable variation in the color of 
oats, as white, yellowish, brownish, red, and black. Oats 
is sometimes discolored by adverse weather conditions, 
and the original color is obscure. Separate the sample into 
the different colors named above. Weigh, and record the 
weight and per cent in each group. The total for color 
should be 100 per cent. 

Size. — Separate the sample into the following groups for 
size : large, medium, small. Weigh, and record the weight 
and per cent of each group. The total for size should be 
100 per cent. 

Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh 



A STUDY OF OATS 139 

them and record their weight. Compare the weight of 100 
average-size kernels in the different samples studied. The 
size of kernels differs in the different classes of oats. 

The weight per bushel is determined by using the weight- 
per-bushel tester, as has been described in Ex. 27. Deter- 
mine the weight per bushel of the sample. 

The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing 
factors, and the grade is given according to the quality of 
the sample. The grain inspection department of the various 
states provide rules for the grading of oats. The following 
rules govern the inspection and grading of white oats in 
Kansas : 

No. 1. White Oats. — Shall be pure white oats, dry, 
sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain. 

No. 2. White Oats. — Shall be seven-eighths white, sound, 
dry, and contain not more than 1 per cent each of dirt and 
foreign matter or 3 per cent of other grain. 

No. 3. White Oats. — Shall be seven-eighths white, sound, 
dry, and not more than 3 per cent of dirt or foreign matter 
nor 5 per cent of other grain. 

No. 4. White Oats. — Shall be seven-eighths white, tough, 
musty, or from any cause unfit for No. 3. 

Make a study of as many other samples as the time permits. 



140 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
A Study of Oats 







Sample Number 




1 


2 


3 


4 


Classification 












Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 

Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 




'Oats of class . . 
Other oats . . . 
Other grains . . 




































Purity. . i 




































Total . . . . 




100 




100 




100 




100 


f Sound kernels . . 


















Soundness 4 

I Injured kernels 


















Total . . . . 




100 




100 




100 




100 




White 

Yellowish . . . 
Brownish .... 

Red 

Black 




































Color . . • 






















































Total . . . . 




100 




100 




100 




100 




Large 

Medium .... 
.Small 


















Size . . < 




































Total .... 




100 




100 




100 




100 


Weight of 100 average-size ker- 
nels 










Weight per bushel 










Commercial grade .... 























Date 



Student's Name 



EXERCISE 34 
THE SORGHUM HEAD 

Object. — To study the shape and structure of the sorghum 
head. 

Explanation. — Sorghum resembles corn somewhat in 
its method of growth, but unlike corn the seed is produced 
in heads on the top of the plants. The heads of different 
types of sorghum vary in shape and appearance. Some are 
oval and compact ; some are long and compact ; and others 
are open and branching. The variety or kind of sorghum 
is most easily determined by a study of the head characters. 
The head of sorghum is called a panicle. 

Equipment. — Typical heads of at least three types of 
sorghum, one each of kafir, milo, and a sweet sorghum for 
each member of the class. 

Directions. — Make an outline drawing of a typical head 
of kafir. Split the head longitudinally through the center, 
so that the method of branching may be more easily observed. 
Study the branches of the panicle and their arrangement 
and make a drawing of the panicle. Make a similar study 
and drawings of the head of milo and of the head of sweet 
sorghums. Fill in the detail of these drawings as far as time 
permits. 



141 



142 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 143 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 35 
A STUDY OF SORGHUM SEED 

Object. — To study the purity and worth of sorghum seed. 

Explanation. — There are two general classes of sorghum, 
saccharine and nonsaccharine. Saccharine sorghum is 
used extensively for forage and for the production of sorghum 
sirup. The seed of saccharine sorghum has a bitter taste 
and is not generally used as feed for live stock. However, it 
has a commercial value as it is used extensively for planting. 
The nonsaccharine sorghums are used extensively for forage 
and their seed is used for feed. 

Sorghum seed is more easily injured in handling than most 
of the other small grain cereals. The kernels crack easily 
in threshing, and their vitality is often reduced by improper 
storing. Sorghum seed of different varieties is often some- 
what mixed. 

Equipment. — 1. Four ten to twelve pound samples of 
sorghum seed representing the different types of sorghum. 

2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 

3. A balance weighing to one half gram. 

4. Type samples of sorghum seed. 

Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of sorghum seed 
from one of the samples and make a detailed study of it. 
Use the outline form " A Study of Sorghum Seed " to record 

144 



A STUDY OF SORGHUM SEED 145 

the results of the examination. Compare the sample under 
observation with named type samples for identification. 
Record the name in the column of that sample number for 
classification. 

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make 
a detailed study of each of the divisions given below. 

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample 
into the following groups : sorghum of class ; other sorghums ; 
other grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record 
its weight and per cent on the blank form in the column of 
that sample number. Weigh accurately to one half of one 
gram. Quantities less than one half of one gram may be 
indicated as " trace." All the groups of this division should 
total 100 per cent for purity. 

For the remainder of the determinations in the study of 
this exercise use ten grams of sorghum seed which have been 
separated from other grains and foreign matter. 

Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating 
the ten-grams sample into the following group : sound 
kernels ; cracked or broken kernels ; rotten, decayed, or 
otherwise injured kernels. Weigh and record the weight 
and per cent of each group. The total for condition should 
be 100 per cent. 

Color. — The color of sorghum seed depends largely upon 
the type and variety. In a pure variety there should be 
little variation in color. Make a study of color by separat- 
ing the sample into the following groups : white, yellow, red, 
brown, and tan. Use named type samples of color in deter- 
mining color of sample. Weigh and record the weight and 
per cent of each color. The total for color should be 



146 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

100 per cent. Separate from the sample 100 average- 
size sound kernels. Weigh them and record their weight. 
Determine weight per bushel of sample as described in 
Ex. 27. Record the weight per bushel on blank form. 
From the data recorded on blank form, compute the per cent 
of the sample that is sound seed. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



147 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
A Study of Sorghum Seed 









Sample Number 




1 


2 


3 


4 


Classification 












Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 




Sorghum of class 

Other sorghum . . 

Other grains . . . 

, Foreign matter . . 

Total 



































Purity . 








































100 




100 




100 




100 










1 












Cracked or broken . 
Rotten, decayed, in- 


















Condition 


















Total 






100 




100 




100 




100 




[ White . 




















yellow . 
Red . . 




















Color . 




















Brown . 






















Tan . . . 






















Total . 






100 




100 




100 




100 


Weight of 100 average-size ker- 
nels 


















Percentage of termination . . 


















Weight per 
Per cent of 



























































Date Student's Name 



EXERCISE 36 
A STUDY OF COWPEAS* 

Object. — To study the purity, condition, and worth of 
cowpea seed. 

Explanation. — Cowpeas make nutritious feed for live 
stock, but the value of the seed is greater for planting 
than for feed. The seed is seldom used for feed unless it 
is badly cracked or broken. Cowpeas are very easily broken 
by threshing, and commercial samples usually contain 
broken seed. The worth of cowpea seed depends largely 
upon its purity and condition. 

Equipment. — 1. Two five to six pound samples repre- 
senting different types of cowpeas. 

2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 

3. A balance weighing to one half of one gram. 

4. Type samples of cowpea seed. 

Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of cowpeas from 
one of the samples and make a detailed study of it. Use 
the outline form " A Study of Cowpeas " to record the 
results of the examination. Compare the sample under 
observation with named type samples for identification. 
Record the name in the column of that sample number for 
classification. 

* If soy beans are more commonly grown in your community 
than cowpeas, substitute soy beans for cowpeas in this exercise. 

148 



A STUDY OF COWPEAS 149 

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make 
a detailed study of it for each of the divisions given below. 

Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample 
into the following groups : cowpeas of variety class ; cow- 
peas of other varieties ; other seeds ; foreign matter. Weigh 
each group and record its weight and per cent on the blank 
form in the column of that sample number. Weigh ac- 
curately to one half of one gram. Quantities less than one 
half of one gram may be indicated as " trace." All the groups 
for this division should total 100 per cent for purity. For 
the remainder of the determinations of this study use ten 
grams of cowpea seed which has been separated from 
other grain and foreign matter. 

Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating 
the ten-gram sample into the following groups : sound seed ; 
cracked or broken seed ; moldy and otherwise injured seed. 
Weigh, and record the weight and per cent of each group. 
The total for condition should be 100 per cent. 

Color. — The color of cowpea seed depends largely upon 
the type and variety. There is little variation in color 
in a pure variety. Make a study of color by separating 
the sample into the following groups : white, light brown, 
dark brown, mottled, gray, black, white with black eye. 
Use named type samples of color in determining color of 
sample. Weigh, and record weight and per cent of each color. 
The total for color should be 100 per cent. Separate from 
the sample 100 average-size seeds. Weigh, and record 
their weight. Determine the weight per bushel of sample 
as described in Ex. 27. Record all data on blank form. 



150 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
A Study of Cowpeas 







Sample Number 


Classification 


1 


2 








Weight 


Per 

Cent 


Weight 


Per 

Cent 




Cowpeas of variety class . 
C«vpeas of other varieties 

Other seeds 

Foreign matter 




















Purity . 




















Total 




100 




100 




Sound seeds 

Broken seeds 

Moldy and otherwise injured 

seeds 

Total 

' White 

Light brown to tan . . . 

Dark brown 

Mottled gray 

Black 

White with black eye . . 
Total 




















Condition ■ 














100 




100 
































Color . . 1 


































100 




100 


Weight of 100 average-size seeds of class 










Weight per 


bushel 


- 









Date Student's N; 



EXERCISE 37 
THE CAPACITY OF GRAIN TO ABSORB MOISTURE 

Object. — To determine the amount of moisture that corn 
and other grains will absorb when submerged in water; 
also the rate at which such absorption takes place. 

Explanation. — The outside covering of the corn kernel 
and other grains is called the hull. It presents a smooth 
and somewhat glossy surface. The hull serves as a pro- 
tection for the main portion of the kernel. Because of its 
smooth surface it is not likely to adhere to other material 
or absorb moisture readily from the atmosphere. When 
placed in water or damp earth, it immediately absorbs 
moisture. It is necessary for the kernel to absorb mois- 
ture before it will germinate. 

Equipment. — 1. Four washpans. 

2. A balance weighing accurately to one half of one gram. 

3. A large blotter. 

4. A small sample each of dent corn, sweet corn, wheat, 
and beans. 

Directions. — Weigh out twenty-five grams each of dent 
corn, sweet corn, wheat, and beans. Place each sample in 
a washpan and pour in enough water to submerge the 
grain completely. Weigh each sample after it has soaked 
for 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 1 day, and 2 days, respectively, 

151 



152 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

and record the weights on the accompanying outline form. 
Before weighing, drain the water off and place the grain 
on the blotter for a few seconds to absorb excess moisture 
clinging to it. After each weighing replace sample in wash- 
pan and again submerge in water. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



153 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 

Table for Recording the Moisture absorbed by Different 

Grains 



Kind of Grain 


1st 
Weight 


Weight 

after 

30 Min. 


Weight 
after 
1 Hr. 


Weight 
after 
2 Hrs. 


Weight 

AFTER 

1 Day 


Weight 

AFTER 

2 Days 


Dent corn . . 


25 gms. 












Sweet corn . . 


25 gms. 












Wheat .... 


25 gms. 












Beans .... 


25 gms. 













EXERCISE 38 
FACTORS AFFECTING THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS 

Object. — To study the factors affecting the germination 
of seeds. 

Explanation. — In order that a seed may grow it must be 
supplied with the proper amount of moisture, air, and heat. 
It is well known that seeds will not germinate if planted 
when the soil is too cold. The proper temperature for 
seeds to grow varies with the seed of different plants. Some 
seed, like oats and clover, will germinate when the soil is very 
cool, while other seeds, like pumpkin and tomato, require 
much higher temperatures for germinating. A temperature 
of 70° to 80° F. is sufficiently high to germinate the seeds 
of most farm crops. 

Seeds will not germinate unless supplied with moisture 
in proper amounts. If the soil is too dry, the seeds will not 
germinate, while if it is too wet, the soil is often too cool for 
germination to take place. Oxygen or air is also necessary 
for germination. Seeds will not germinate well when the 
soil is badly crusted because they do not receive sufficient 
air. 

Equipment. — 1. Six washpans. 

2. A stick with blunt end for compacting the soil. 

3. Two soils, sand and clay. 

154 



FACTORS AFFECTING THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS 155 

4. One hundred and twenty kernels of corn of uniform 
size and known to be of strong vitality. 

5. Balances weighing to one half gram. 

6. Graduated cylinder, 100 c.c. 

Directions. — Number the washpans from one to six. 
Put into the first three pans equal amounts by weight of air- 
dry sand and into the last three equal amounts by weight 
of air-dry clay. The pans should be about two thirds 
full. 

Add^ water slowly by measure to one pan containing sand 
until the soil, when thoroughly mixed, appears to contain the 
proper moisture content for the best growth of seeds. Add 
the same quantity of water to the second and third pan, 
mixing it well with the soil. 

In the same way determine the proper amount of water 
to add to the clay soil for the best growth of plants. Make 
up all three pans containing clay to the same moisture 
content. 

Smooth the surface of the soil in all the pans and plant 
twenty kernels of corn in each pan. Plant the kernels at 
a depth of one inch. 

Treat the pans as follows : 

1. Sand. No treatment. Set in a warm place to ger- 
minate. 

2. Sand. Thoroughly saturate with water. Set in a 
warm place to germinate. 

3. Sand. No treatment. Place where the temperature 
is cool, but not cold enough to freeze. 

4. Clay. No treatment. Set in a warm place to ger- 
minate. 



156 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

5. Clay. Thoroughly pack the surface of the soil by 
compacting. Set in a warm place to germinate. 

6. Clay. Thoroughly pack the surface of the soil by 
compacting and thoroughly saturate the soil. Set in a warm 
place to germinate. 

It will usually be sufficiently warm behind the stove or 
in the furnace room of the school building to maintain the 
proper temperature for germination. 

Pans 1, 3, 4, and 5 should be watered to maintain the proper 
moisture for the best growth of the seeds. 

Pans 2 and 6 should be wet until water just stands on the 
surface and should be maintained in this condition by adding 
additional water each day. 

Examine the pans each day for two weeks and count the 
number of seeds that have germinated. 

Record your count in the following outline form. Dis- 
cuss fully the cause for the difference in germination observed. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



157 



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158 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 39 

A GERMINATION TEST OF CLOVER OR 
GRASS SEED 

Object. — To test the vitality of clover or grass seed. 

Explanation. — There are many factors affecting the 
quality of seed, and many commercial samples of clover 
and grass seed are low in vitality. The vitality of these 
seeds is more easily injured than the vitality of the seed of 
the common cereals. It is essential, therefore, before sowing 
clover or grass seed to make a germination test to determine 
its vitality. 

In making germination tests the seeds should be kept 
moist and at a proper growing temperature. The most fa- 
vorable temperature differs with different seeds. The clovers 
should germinate well at 60° to 80° F. 

Equipment. — 1. A pound of red clover seed. 

2. Two paper plates or pieces of blotting paper for each 
student. 

3. A pair of forceps for each student. 

Directions. — Count out 100 sound seeds. Place them 
between the paper plates or blotters, and moisten well. 
Keep at a temperature of 60° to 80° F. Examine the seed 
at the end of four days. Count and record the number of 

159 



160 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

seeds that have produced sprouts. Carefully remove the 
sprouted seeds so that they will not interfere with later 
countings. Count and remove the additional seeds that 
germinate each second day for eight days. Record data in 
the outline form. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 



161 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 

Record of Germination 



Name of 
Sample 


No. OF 
Seedb in 
Sample 


Number of Seeds Sprouted 


Total Per 
Cent of 

Seeds 
Sprouted 


4 
Days 


6 
Days 


8 
Days 


10 
Days 


12 
Days 



















































































EXERCISE 40 
A STUDY OF GRASS SEED 

Object. — To study the purity and worth of grass seed. 

Explanation. — The perennial grasses include such grasses 
as timothy, Kentucky bluegrass, orchard grass, brome grass, 
and redtop. The seeds of different kinds of perennial 
grasses are not as generally known as are the seeds of cereal 
grains. They are not produced in such large quantities, 
commercial samples often contain seeds of other grasses, 
weed seeds, and foreign matter, and their vitality is often 
low because of unfavorable conditions during harvesting 
and storing. To insure good results in seeding grasses it 
is essential that the seed be free from other seed and foreign 
matter, and that its vitality be reasonably strong. 

Equipment. — 1. A one-pound sample of timothy seed 
or other grass such as has been named under explanation. 

2. A balance weighing to one tenth of one gram. 

3. A pair of forceps. 

4. A hand lens. 

5. Type sample of grasses. 

Directions. — Weigh out two grams of grass seed from the 
samples and make a detailed study of it. Use the outline 
form " A Study of Grass Seed " to record the results of the 

162 



A STUDY OF GRASS SEED 163 

examination. Record the name of the grass in the column 
of that sample number for classification. 

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make 
a study of it for purity. Separate the sample into the follow- 
ing groups : grass seed true to name ; seed of other grasses ; 
weed seeds ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record 
its weight and per cent on the blank form in the column for 
that sample number. Weigh accurately to one tenth of 
one gram. Quantities less than one tenth of one gram 
may be indicated as " trace." All the groups under purity 
should total 100 per cent. 

Separate from the sample one hundred seeds true to 
name and make a germination test as described in Ex. 
39. Record the data of the germination test in Ex. 39. 
Record the per cent of germination on the blank form. 
From the data recorded on the blank form compute the per 
cent of the sample that will grow and that is true to name. 



164 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
A Study of Grass Seed 





Sample Number 




1 


2 


3 


4 


Classification 












Wt. 


Per 

Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Wt. 


Per 
Cent 


Seed true to name . 


















Grass seed of other classes 


















Weed seeds 


















Foreign matter .... 
Total 




















100 




100 




100 




100 


Per cent of germination . 

Per cent of seed of sample 

that will grow . . . 



















Date Student's Name 



EXERCISE 41 
A STUDY OF ALFALFA SEED 

Object. — To study the purity and worth of alfalfa seed. 

Explanation. — Alfalfa is more likely to be adulterated 
with other material than the seed of cereals. Very often 
samples of alfalfa contain seed of obnoxious weeds, im- 
mature alfalfa seed, and trash. Such samples are of an 
inferior quality, and the man who procures alfalfa seed 
should guard against such impurities. To insure good re- 
sults in seeding alfalfa, it is essential that the seed be free 
from other seeds and foreign matter and that its vitality 
be reasonably strong. 

Equipment. — 1. A one-pound sample of alfalfa seed. 

2. A balance weighing to one tenth of one gram. 

3. A pair of forceps. 

4. A hand lens. 

Directions. — Weigh out two grams of alfalfa seed from 
the sample and make a detailed study of it. Use the out- 
line form "A Study of Alfalfa Seed" to record the results 
of the examination. Record the sample, name, and source 
of the seed at the top of the vertical column for classification. 

Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make 
a study of it for purity. Separate the sample into the follow- 
ing groups : sound alfalfa seed ; broken and immature 
alfalfa seed ; seed of clover and grasses ; weed seeds ; foreign 

165 



166 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

matter. Weigh each group and record its weight and per 
cent on the blank form in the column for that sample number. 
Weigh accurately to one tenth of one gram. Quantities 
less than one tenth of one gram may be indicated as " trace." 
All the groups of the sample should total 100 per cent. 

Separate from the sample one hundred sound seeds and 
make a germination test as described in Ex. 39. Record 
the data of the germination test in Ex. 39. Record the per 
cent of germination on the blank form. From the data 
recorded on the blank form compute the per cent of the 
sample that will grow and that is true to name. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 



167 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
A Study of Alfalfa Seed 





Sample Number 


Classification 


i 


2 








Weight 


Per 

Cent 


Weight 


Per 
Cent 


Sound alfalfa seed 










Broken and immature alfalfa seed . . . 










Seed of clover and grasses 










Weed seeds 










Foreign matter 

Per cent of germination 

Per cent of seed of sample that will grow 



























Date Student's Name. 



EXERCISE 42 
A STUDY OF THE PLOW 

Object. — To study the structure of the plow and to be- 
come familiar with the different parts and their purpose. 

Explanation. — The plow is the most generally used of 
all farm implements. The purpose of the plow is to invert 
and pulverize the soil and to turn under weeds and other 
vegetation. Its construction is not complex, and when prop- 
erly adjusted, it is easy to operate. If improperly adjusted, 
the plow is often difficult to operate, and it does an inferior 
grade of work. The principal parts of a plow are the share, 
landside, and the moldboard. 

Equipment. — 1. A walking plow. 

2. A riding plow. 

3. A three-foot rule. 

4. A three-foot tape. 

Directions. — Make the necessary measurements and ob- 
servations to answer the following questions. 
Record answers in the following outline form : 



168 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 169 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 

Walking Plow 

1. Give name of plow. 

2. Give the manufacturer's name. 

3. Give location of manufacturer. 

4. Is the plow a stubble, sod, or landside plow ? 

5. Give size of plow. 

6. Measure and record distance from point of share to center 
of hitch. 

7. Measure and record distance from floor to highest point 
under beam. (Clearance.) 

8. Measure and record distance from point of share to point 
on plow just below end of beam. 

9. Measure and record distance that the end of beam extends 
outside of the line of the landside. 

10. Why is the plow made with the end of the beam extending 
outside of the line of the landside ? 



11. Measure and record the suction of the plow. 

12. What is the purpose of the suction of the plow ? 

13. What is the purpose of the high polish on the moldboard ? 



170 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

14. How should the moldboard be protected when not in use 
so as to retain this high polish ? 



Riding Plow 

1. Give the name of plow. 

2. Give the manufacturer's name. 

3. Give location of manufacturer. 

4. Is the plow a single or a gang plow? 

5. Give the size of plow. 

6. Is the plow drawn from the beam or the frame ? 

7. Has the plow a foot lift ? 

8. Have the wheels hard oilers ? 

9. Are the wheels difficult to oil ? 

10. Place a straightedge along landside and measure and record 
distance from this line to furrow wheel. 

11. Measure and record the height of hitch above plow with 
plow resting on the floor. 



EXERCISE 43 

A STUDY OF THE GRAIN GRADER OR FANNING 

MILL 

Object. — To study the structure of the grain grader, 
and test its efficiency for grading grain for planting. 

Explanation. — Small grain as it comes from the thresh- 
ing machine is usually unfit for planting. It contains small 
pieces of straw and chaff, which obstruct the grain drill in 
seeding, and make uniform seeding impossible. Besides 
straw and chaff, grain as it is threshed contains broken, 
shriveled, and small kernels. This material is unfit for 
planting, but will make valuable feed if separated from the 
seed grain. 

It is estimated that twenty per cent of the grain as it 
comes from the thresher is unfit for planting, but suitable 
for feeding. By using the grain grader in preparing grain 
for seed, a more uniform stand of vigorous plants is 
obtained, and the broken and small kernels may be saved 
for feed. 

Apparatus. — 1. A fanning mill. 

2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 

3. One bushel of uncleaned wheat as it comes from the 
thresher. 

171 



172 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

4. Scales weighing one hundred pounds or more and weigh- 
ing accurately to one half pound. 

Directions. — Part I. Structure of Grain Grader. — 
Make the necessary measurements and observations to an- 
swer the following questions. Record answers in the outline 
form on the following page. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 173 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 

1. Give name of grader. 

2. Give the manufacturer's name. 

3. Give location of manufacturer. 

4. Does the mill depend upon specific gravity or size of grain 
or both for separation ? 

5. Does the grader have sieves ? 

6. Are the sieves horizontal or sloping ? 

7. When the machine is in motion, do the sieves move verti- 
cally, horizontally, or lengthwise with the machine ? 

8. Can the length of the stroke of the sieves be varied ? 

9. How many sieves has the machine ? 
10. Give the purpose of each sieve. 



11. Give size of mesh of each sieve (the number of holes for 
inch of length) . 



12. Does the grader have a bagger attachment ? 

13. What is the rated capacity of the grader ? 



174 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



Part II. Test of Grain Grader. — Weigh out sixty pounds 
of uncleaned wheat. Use scales for weighing. Determine 
weight per bushel of wheat by using weight-per-bushel 
tester. Adjust the grain grader properly for grading wheat. 
Run the bushel of wheat through the grader, making three 
grades if possible. Weigh the amount of wheat in first 
grade and determine per cent. Determine the weight per 
bushel with weight-per-bushel tester. Determine per cent 
and weight per bushel of the second and third grades. Ob- 
serve the difference in quality of the different grades of 
wheat. 

Record data in the following outline : 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
Table showing Wheat as graded by the Grain Grader 







Weight 


Per Cent of Sample 


Wt. per Bushel 


Bushel sample 


60 pounds 


100% 




Best grade 








Second grade . 








Third grade . 









EXERCISE 44 
THE CORN GRADER 

Object. — To study the construction of the corn grader 
and test its efficiency for grading corn. 

Explanation — Even though seed corn is selected with 
considerable care, the ears will not be uniform and the kernels 
will not be of the same shape and size when shelled. It is 
necessary for seed corn to be uniform in shape and size for 
uniform distribution in planting. A good corn grader will 
remove those kernels that are very large, very small, or ir- 
regular in shape. 

Equipment. — 1. A corn grader. 

2. One half bushel of shelled corn. 

3. A scale weighing one hundred pounds or more and 
weighing accurately to one half pound. 

Directions. — Part I. Structure of the Grain Grader. — 
Make the necessary measurements and observations to 
answer the following questions. Record answers in the 
following outline form : 



175 



176 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
The Corn Grader 

1. Give name of grader. 

2. Give manufacturer's name. 

3. Give location of manufacturer. 

4. How is the corn separated into different grades ? 

5. Into how many grades is the corn separated ? 

6. How many sieves has the grader ? 

7. What is the method of agitating the corn on the sieve ? 

8. What is the capacity of the grader ? 



THE CORN GRADER 



111 



Part II. Test of Corn Grader. — Weigh out twenty- 
five pounds of corn. Adjust the grader properly for grading 
corn. Run the corn through the grader and separate into 
three grades, if possible. Weigh the amount of corn in the 
first grade and determine its per cent. Weigh and determine 
the per cent of both the corn that is too large and the corn 
that is too small. 

Record data on following outline : 



Table showing Grade of Corn as separated by the Corn 

Grader 





Weight 


Per Cent of Sample 


Entire sample .... 


25 


100 


First grade 






Large kernels 






Small kernels .... 







EXERCISE 45 
THE CORN PLANTER 

Object. — To study the structure of the corn planter, and 
become familiar with its different parts and their purpose. 

Explanation. — The corn crop is the most valuable crop 
grown in the United States. More acres of land are planted 
to corn in the Central United States than to any other cul- 
tivated crop. It would be impossible to plant this vast 
acreage of corn without the aid of the corn planter. The 
corn planter, therefore, is absolutely necessary upon nearly 
all farms in the corn belt. 

Equipment. — 1. A two-row corn planter. 

2. A one hundred foot tape line. 

Directions. — Make the necessary observations to answer 
the following questions. Record the answers in the follow- 
ing outline form. 



17 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 179 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
The Corn Planter 

1. Give name of planter. 

2. Give the manufacturer's name. 

3. Give the location of manufacturer. 

4. What kind of furrow opener has the planter — stub or curved 
runner, single or double disk ? 

5. What kind of wheel has the planter — open, solid, or double? 

6. Are the wheels high or low ? 

7. Has the planter a drill or full hill drop ? 

8. Has it an edge selection or flat plate ? 

9. Will the seed box tip over ? 

10. How many valves has each planter shank ? 

11. Trace the path of the corn from the seed box to the ground. 



12. What is the object of the upper valve 



180 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

13. Of the lower valve ? 

14. Does the lower valve counteract the speed of the team ? 

15. Can the width of the row be varied ? 

16. What is its greatest width ? 

17. What is its least width ? 

18. How is the reel attached and driven ? 

19. How is the number of kernels in each hill determined ? 

20. Do the plates rotate continuously in accumulating a hill ? 

21. Do the plates revolve vertically or horizontally? 

22. Has the planter sight feed ? 

23. Can the planter be arranged to drill the corn? 

24. Adjust the planter for drilling and to drop one kernel every 
eighteen inches. After properly adjusting the planter for this 
rate of drop, measure off a stretch of one hundred feet on the bare 
ground and pull the planter over this distance to determine the 
accuracy of drop. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 181 

25. If you were to buy a planter, what kind would you buy? 
What kind of wheels and furrow openers would you select ? Give 
fully the reasons for your answer. 



EXERCISE 46 
ACCURACY OF DROP OF THE CORN PLANTER 

Object. — To test the accuracy with which the corn 
planter drops the kernels of corn. 

Explanation. — Nearly every corn planter is equipped both 
to drill the corn in the row and to plant it in the hill. 
When the corn planter is set to drill the corn in rows, the dis- 
tance apart at which the kernels are dropped may be varied 
by changing the plates in the hopper and by varying the 
size of the drive wheel that governs the speed of the planter 
plates. When planting in hills, the planter maybe adjusted 
in the same way to drop from two to six or seven kernels in 
the hill. Since the yield of corn on a given area of ground 
is greatly influenced by the stand secured, it is very de- 
sirable to use a planter that will plant accurately at the 
proper rate. Before using the planter in the field it should 
be adjusted to plant at the rate desired and thoroughly 
tested to make sure that it is planting accurately. 

Equipment. — 1. A two-row corn planter. 

2. Four quarts of shelled corn. 

Directions. — Adjust the corn planter with the proper 
plates to drop two kernels in a hill. Place a few handfuls 
of corn in the hopper. Jack up the planter so that the wheels 
turn free from the ground. Run the planter slowly by hand 

182 



ACCURACY OF DROP OF THE CORN PLANTER 183 

and count the number of kernels dropped in each hill until 
one hundred hills have been dropped. 

Record in the accompanying outline form the number of 
hills in which no kernels were dropped, one kernel, two ker- 
nels, three kernels, four kernels, five or more kernels. 

Repeat the count for another hundred hills and record 
results as before. 

Adjust the corn planter to drop three kernels in a hill. 
In the same manner as before count the number of kernels 
dropped in each hill until one hundred hills have been 
dropped. 

Record in the outline form the number of hills in which 
no kernel was dropped, one kernel, two kernels, three ker- 
nels, four kernels, five or more kernels. Repeat the count 
for another hundred hills and record the results as before. 



184 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
Accuracy of Drop of Corn Planter 





Adjustment of Planter 


Hills Receiving the 
Following Kernels 


To Drop 2 Kernels 


To Drop 3 Kernels 




1st 
Count 


2d 
Count 


Average 


1st 
Count 


2d 
Count 


Average 


No kernels . . . 














One kernel . . . 














Two kernels . . 














Three kernels . . 














Four kernels . . 














Five or more ker- 
nels .... 















EXERCISE 47 
TREATMENT OF SEED OATS FOR SMUT 

Object. — To demonstrate a practical method of treating 
seed oats for smut. 

Explanation. — Smut in grain is caused by a parasitic 
plant growing through the tissue of the grain plant. Smut 
usually appears as a black, powdery mass of spores, and 
may destroy the entire head of grain. Smut is produced 
from smut spores as other plants are produced from seeds. 
Smut frequently appears in oats and often greatly reduces 
the yield. 

A solution made of one pint of formaldehyde added to 
fifty gallons of water is effective in treating oat smut. 

The smut spores become ripe soon after the oats head out 
and are then blown about through the field by the wind. 
Many of the smut spores cling to other heads and kernels. 
When the seed is planted the next year, the fungus grows 
up within the young seedling. At flowering time the smut 
becomes visible and the head develops into a mass of smut 
spores. 

Equipment. — 1. One half bushel of oats. 

2. 50 c.c. of 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde. 

3. A four-gallon crock. 

185 



186 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

4. Paper plates or blotters for making germination test. 

5. A cotton sack. 

Directions. — Reserve twenty grams of the sample for 
study and germination test. Pour four liters of water into 
the crock. Add to the water 30 c.c. of the formaldehyde 
solution. Put four pounds of oats into a cotton sack large 
enough to hold ten pounds, and submerge it in the prepared 
solution. Move the sack around in the solution so that all 
the grain may become thoroughly wet. Remove after thirty 
seconds. Empty the sack and spread the grain out on a 
clean surface to dry. Submerge another four-pound sample 
in a similar manner and remove after two minutes. Spread 
it out on a clean surface to dry. Submerge a third four- 
pound sample for five minutes and place it out to dry. Make 
a germination test of the untreated sample and each of the 
treated samples. Use one hundred grains of each for the 
germination test as shown in Ex. 39. Record the vitality 
of each sample on the outline form. Seed oats should be 
thoroughly treated, but not left in the solution long enough 
to injure their vitality. 



Treatment 


Vitality 


No treatment 


% 






Submerged 30 seconds 


% 


Submerged 2 minutes 


% 


Submerged 5 minutes 


% 



After oats are treated for smut they should not be put in 
bins or sacks that have smut in them. 



TREATMENT OF SEED OATS FOR SMUT 187 

The loose smut of oats, the stinking smut of wheat, the 
covered smut of barley, and the sorghum grain smut may all 
be treated effectively in a similar manner. The loose smut 
of wheat cannot be successfully combated by the above 
treatment. 



188 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 48 
THE IRISH POTATO 

Object. — To become familiar with the structure of the 
potato and to determine the qualities that affect its value. 

Explanation. — The potato is an underground enlarge- 
ment of the potato plant. It is commonly called a tuber. 
The tuber serves as a means of storing reserve plant food to be 
used later in the development of new plants. The eye of the 
potato is a dormant bud from which the new plant develops. 
The interior of the potato is filled with starch and serves 
as food for the new plant. The potato is used as one of the 
principal foods of man. Its value for food is affected by 
its freedom from injury and disease, smoothness, depth of 
eyes, and size. A good potato should be smooth, free from 
disease, of medium size, and have medium shallow eyes. 

Equipment. — 1. Twenty pounds of potatoes of various 
shapes and sizes, and if possible of different varieties. 

2. Balance weighing to one half of one gram. 

3. A paring knife. , 

Directions. — Weigh out fifteen pounds of potatoes and 
make a detailed study of them. Use the outline form "A 
Study of the Potato" to record the results of the examina- 
tion. 

Shape. — Make a study of the shape of the potatoes by 

189 



190 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

separating the sample into the following classes : round, 
cylindrical, oval, flat oval. Count and record the number 
of potatoes in each group. 

Size. — Separate the potatoes into groups of large, me- 
dium, and small size. Count and record the number in 
each group. 

Color of Skin. — Separate the potatoes into the following 
groups : yellowish, white, pink, russet, red, and other colors. 
Count and record the number of potatoes in each group. 

Texture of Skin. — Separate the sample into the following 
groups based upon the texture of the skin : corky, netted, 
medium smooth, very smooth. Count and record the num- 
ber in each group. 

Depth of Eyes. — Separate the sample into the following 
groups, based upon depth of eyes : deep, medium, and 
shallow. Count and record the number in each group. 

Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating 
the sample of potatoes into the following groups : clean, 
broken or cracked, and diseased. Count and record the 
number of potatoes in each group. 

Select from the sample five large, five small, and five very 
rough and knotty potatoes. Weigh each group of five sep- 
arately and record weight. Peel the potatoes in each group, 
removing as nearly as possible the same thickness of peeling 
in each case. Weigh, and record the weight of the peeled 
potatoes of each group. Subtract these weights from the 
first weights to determine the weight of peeling in each group. 
Determine the per cent of waste in each group. 

Record the data in the accompanying outline form. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 



191 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
A Study of the Irish Potato 







Sample Number 




' 


2 




Round 

Cylindrical 

Oval 

Flat oval 

Large 

Medium 

Small 

Yellowish white .... 

Pink 

Russet 

Red 

Othpr p.nlnrs 












Shape .... 


















Size .... 
























Color of skin . 


















f Corky 

m „ , . 1 Netted 










Texture of skin <,.-,. ,, 

Medium smooth .... 

1 Vprv smooth . • . 












[ Deep 

| Medium 

[ Shallow 






Depth of eyes . 












f Clean 






Condition . . \ Cracked or broken 






Disfifl.sfid 















Date Student's name. 



192 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



Group No. 


Weight of 

Whole 

Potatoes 


Weight of 

Peeled 
Potatoes 


Weight of 
Peeling 


Per Cent 
of Waste 


Large potatoes . . 










Small potatoes . . . 










Rough potatoes . . 











EXERCISES 49 AND 50 
PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 

Object. — To plan the arrangement and succession of 
crops in the home garden. 

Explanation. — It is practically impossible for the farmer 
to have fresh vegetables during the summer unless he pro- 
duces them in his own garden. There should be a small plot 
of ground set aside on every farm for the home garden. A 
garden well planned and growing a succession of vegetable 
crops will be a great convenience in furnishing fresh vege- 
tables in the summer time. The home garden should afford 
pleasure and reduce the cost of living expenses. 

The garden should be large enough to make cultivation 
with horses possible. The rows will have to be further apart 
and more ground will be needed for the same amount of crops, 
but much hand labor will be saved. A home garden might 
well occupy a space of one half to one acre of land. Where 
this much space is not available the rows may be placed 
closer together, and hand cultivation resorted to. The 
site for the garden should be conveniently arranged close to 
the house, on a plot of land of good texture and fertility. 

It is advisable to apply a dressing of well-rotted manure to 
the garden each year. Cultivation should be frequent to 
prevent the growth of weeds. 

o 193 



194 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Garden crops are more valuable than field crops consider- 
ing the space they occupy, and the grower can afford to give 
them more cultivation. 

The garden should be fenced with a woven wire fence to 
protect it from rabbits, chickens, and " live stock." 

The home garden may include annual and perennial vege- 
table crops and small fruit crops. The following are some of 
the annual crops that may be grown successfully : radishes, 
lettuce, peas, beans, onions, carrots, parsley, turnips, toma- 
toes, cabbage, sweet corn, celery, and cucumbers. Radishes, 
lettuce, peas, and beans are often ready for use in early 
summer, and the space they occupied may be reseeded with 
other vegetables, as cucumbers, celery, and turnips. 

Perennial plants, such as horseradish, rhubarb, asparagus, 
blackberries, raspberries, currants, and grapes, may well oc- 
cupy a permanent place in the garden. If the entire garden 
is not occupied by the above crops, the remainder of it may 
well be planted with more sweet corn and potatoes. 

Directions. — Take the measurements of your home gar- 
den. Plan what portion of it should be devoted to each of 
the crops given. Figure the area to be occupied by each crop. 
If the garden is not already properly planned, make such 
changes as you think advisable. Draw a plan for the 
garden and show where all the crops are to be located. 
Estimate the amount of seed needed for each. crop. Go to 
your seed dealer and ascertain the price required to purchase 
the seed. Give the quantity and approximate cost of each 
kind of seed to be used in the garden. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 195 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



196 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 51 
PRUNING 

Object. — To study methods of pruning, and the benefits 
derived from removing undesirable branches from trees. 

Explanation. — It is often necessary to remove branches 
from trees in order to promote their best development. 
There are two important objects to be secured by pruning. 
One is to beautify the tree by giving it a better shape ; the 
other is to make it more fruitful or increase its vigor. Prun- 
ing may be performed at various times during the year, 
and the best time depends largely upon the purpose for 
which it is done. Pruning in the winter tends to promote 
growth of wood, while pruning during the growing season 
tends to promote the production of fruit buds. It is usually 
well to prune orchard trees late in the winter or early in the 
spring while they are in dormant condition. Pruning may 
be done successfully almost any time of year except when 
the buds are starting. Pruning is a means of thinning out 
undesirable branches. Very severe pruning tends toward the 
production of a new growth of wood and a light production 
of fruit. For the best results an orchard should be pruned 
a little every year. When a limb is cut off, it should be re- 
moved as near its main branch as possible, and parallel to it. 
The wound will heal much more rapidly if the limb is re- 

197 



198 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

moved close to the main branch than if the stub is left 
longer. The healing of the wound takes place at the cam- 
bium layer. The hard wood itself at the center of the limb 
never heals, but is partly covered over by the growth of 
the cambium layer. When large limbs are removed, the 
wound is often covered with paint to protect it during the 
process of healing. 

Equipment. — 1. Pruning shears. 

2. Pruning saw. 

3. Pruning knife. 

Directions. — Go to a near-by orchard of mature apple 
trees. Other fruit trees may be chosen, or even forest trees 
may answer the purpose if orchard trees are not accessible. 
Select a tree in need of pruning. Remove all broken, injured, 
or diseased limbs. Remove limbs that are likely to rub or 
injure other portions of the tree. Remove all water sprouts. 
Remove a sufficient number of the least desirable limbs so 
that the light may penetrate to the center of the tree. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 199 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISES 52 AND 53 
THE BABCOCK TEST 1 

Object. — To determine the per cent of butter fat in milk. 

Explanation. — The value of a cow as a milk producer de- 
pends not only on the quantity of milk produced, but also on 
the per cent of butter fat in the milk. The amount of butter 
fat in milk may be determined by the Babcock test. 

Equipment. — 1. One or more pint samples of milk. 

2. A Babcock testing outfit. 

Directions. — Bring the acid and milk to be used to a tem- 
perature of 70° F. This can best be done by placing them 
in the hot-water bath. Mix the milk thoroughly by pouring 
it from one vessel to another no less than five times. 

Take pipette between thumb and second and third fingers, 
leaving the index finger free, draw milk into pipette immedi- 
ately after stirring and place index finger over the tip of 
pipette ; now release the finger very slightly until top of the 
milk column is even with the mark of the pipette. 

Hold the milk bottle on a slant and place the end of the 
pipette in the neck of the bottle, leaving an opening for air so 
that air bubbles cannot form and throw milk out of the neck ; 

1 Adapted from O. E. Reed in the Dairy Primer, Chapters in 
Elements of Agriculture, Extension Department, Kansas State 
Agricultural College. 

200 



THE BABCOCK TEST 201 

then release finger and allow the milk to flow into the bottle, 
blowing the last drop from the pipette. A second sample of 
the milk should be taken in the same way as a duplicate. 

Fill acid measure to the mark (never draw acid into pipette) . 
The acid is very strong and should be handled with the great- 
est caution. Water should be at hand to remove quickly any 
acid coming in contact with the hands or other parts of the 
body. Take the milk bottle by the neck between thumb and 
fingers of the left hand so that the bottle can be turned ; 
now bring the lip of the acid measure to the mouth of the 
bottle and pour the acid into the bottle so that all of the 
milk will be washed from the neck into the bottle. Hold the 
bottle at a slant while doing this so that the acid will not fall 
directly on the milk and form pieces of charred curd. 

Give the bottle a rotary motion in order to cause a gradual 
mixture of milk and acid; sudden mixing will cause large 
amounts of heat and gas and will throw the material out of 
the bottle. 

After the bottle has been stirred thoroughly and the curd 
is dissolved, place the bottle in the Babcock tester and whirl 
five minutes. 

Place the bottles in the water bath of 180° F. for five 
minutes and fill with hot water to the neck. 

Whirl for two minutes. 

Place in water bath for five minutes and fill with hot water 
to within one half inch of the top of the bottle. 

Whirl for two minutes. 

Place in water bath, 130° F., for five minutes. 

Measure the fat column by placing one point of the dividers 
at the bottom and the other at the top, then keeping dividers 



202 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

at this spread, place one point on the zero mark and note 
where the other point falls on the scale. The reading on 
the scale at this point indicates the per cent of butter fat 
in the milk. Record the per cent of butter fat of both the 
first and second determinations. Additional tests should be 
made as time will permit. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 203 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



204 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 54 
MIXING SPRAY MATERIALS 

Object. — To prepare Bordeaux mixture for spraying 
apples. 

Explanation. — Apple trees are sprayed to destroy fungi or 
insects which may injure or completely destroy the crop if 
their growth and development are not checked. In order 
that spraying may be effective it is necessary to apply a sub- 
stance that will destroy the fungi or insects without injury 
to the apple tree or fruit. 

The spray material known as Bordeaux mixture has been 
found to be effective in destroying fungi such as apple scab, 
apple blotch, and bitter rot, usually without injury to 
the tree or fruit. Lime sulphur, another spray material, is 
less likely to injure some varieties of apples, but does not 
effectively destroy the apple blotch. Where the apple blotch 
is not present, lime sulphur may be used instead of Bordeaux 
mixture. Lead arsenate is effective in controlling the cod- 
ling moth, one of the insects most destructive to the apple 
crop. A strong solution of lead arsenate will destroy the 
cankerworm and other insects that feed upon the foliage 
and fruit. A strong solution of lime sulphur is used to com- 
bat the San Jose scale. 

A common formula for making Bordeaux mixture is : 

205 



206 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Three pounds of copper sulphate. 

Four pounds of fresh lime. 

Fifty gallons of water. 

The proportion of lime is sometimes increased if there is 
danger of spray burn. The lime is slacked by pouring water 
over it, and the copper sulphate is dissolved in water. Both 
the copper sulphate solution and the lime solution should be 
diluted to twenty-five gallons and then poured together. 
The entire solution should be poured through a strainer to 
remove coarse material. 

Lime sulphur can be purchased on the market as such. 
Commercial brands usually test 32° or 33° Baume. Material 
of this strength should be diluted about thirty to thirty- 
five times with water before using on trees that are in 
leaf. 

Lead arsenate spray may be prepared by dissolving two to 
four pounds of lead arsenate in fifty gallons of spray material. 
Lead arsenate may be used in the same spray with Bordeaux 
mixture or lime sulphur. Spray burn sometimes results 
from the use of Bordeaux mixture in wet weather, and from 
the use of lime sulphur in dry weather. When both 
sprays are used together, one application will be effective 
in combating both the codling moth and fungous diseases. 
Spraying must be done at various periods to protect the 
apple crop successfully. 

Equipment. — 1. Thirty grams of copper sulphate. 

2. Fifty grams of fresh lime. 

3. Two two-gallon crocks. 

4. One four-gallon crock. 

5. Ten grams of potassium ferrocyanide. 



MIXING SPRAY MATERIALS 207 

6. Graduated cylinder, 100 c.c. 

7. Balance weighing to one half gram. 

Directions. — Dissolve thirty grams of copper sulphate in 
two liters of water, in a two-gallon crock. Slack forty grams 
of fresh lime by pouring water over it and mixing. Pour in 
water to bring the solution up to two liters. Pour the two 
solutions together into the large crock. The resulting solu- 
tion is the Bordeaux mixture. 

The Bordeaux mixture should be alkaline in reaction. 
Dissolve the ten grams of potassium ferrocyanide in 50 c.c. of 
water. Pour a drop of potassium ferrocyanide solution into 
the spray material. If it turns brown on striking the liquid, 
the reaction is acid, and more limewater must be added to 
make it alkaline. If the reaction is acid, add 50 c.c. of lime- 
water and test again with a drop of potassium ferrocyanide 
solution. Continue adding limewater and testing until the 
solution no longer gives the brown color when potassium 
ferrocyanide is added. 



208 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 55 
GRAFTING 

Object. — To study the principal simple methods of grafting. 

Explanation. — Grafting is the operation of inserting a 
small branch or twig (called a cion) into an incision of another 
branch (called the stock). The cion must bear one or more 
buds, and its cambium layer must be placed next to the cam- 
bium layer of the stock so that the wood of the two may 
unite and grow. The main object of grafting is to propagate 
plants that do not readily reproduce themselves in desired 
forms from the seed. There are several methods of grafting. 
Two important ones are root and top grafting. Root grafting 
is practiced with apples in starting young trees. The fruit 
produced from a seedling apple tree is uncertain in kind and 
value. One-year-old seedlings are used for the root stock. 
Twigs of the previous summer's growth taken from good 
apple trees are used for the cions. Top grafting is employed 
to change the character of fruit of an older tree by replacing 
the branches of the tree with small twigs of a desirable variety. 

Equipment. — 1. Grafting knife. 2. Saw. 

3. Grafting wax. 1 4. Ten one-year-old apple seedlings. 2 

1 Grafting wax may be made by melting together four parts, by 
weight, of resin, two parts of beeswax, and one part of tallow. When 
thoroughly melted, pour the mixture into a pail of cold water. After 
it hardens it should be pulled and worked until it becomes tough. 
The hands should be greased with tallow when handling grafting wax. 

2 Apple seedlings may be secured from nurseries in lots of one 
hundred. 

p 209 



210 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 





Fig. 12. — Root grafting. A, cion 
shaped ready for insertion ; B, por- 
tion of seedling root shaped to 
receive the cion ; C, the cion and 
portion of root put together; 
D, the same as C, wrapped with 
grafting paper. (After Goff .) 



B 



Fig. 13. — Cleft-grafting. A, cion 
shaped ready for insertion in 
cleft (after Bailey) ; B, cions in- 
serted in cleft ready for waxing. 
(After Goff.) 



GRAFTING 211 

Directions for Root Grafting. — Select a proper root stock 
and cion for grafting. Cut both the stock and the cion across 
diagonally, so that the cut surface will extend from one to 
two inches. Make a vertical slit in each cut surface and press 
the tongue of the cion into the cleft of the stock. (See illus- 
tration.) Wrap the graft firmly with a bandage and apply 
grafting wax over the bandage for protection. 

Directions for Top Grafting. — Select an apple tree which 
is barren or produces an inferior variety of apples. Remove 
with a saw a branch that is one half inch to one inch in 
diameter. Make a split down the center of the stock. Pre- 
pare two cions four to five inches in length and wedge- 
shaped at the base. Place the cions in the split, one on 
each side, so that the cambium layer of the outside of 
each cion comes into exact contact with the cambium layer 
of the stock. Cover all the wounds carefully with grafting 
wax. 



212 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISES 56 AND 57 
GERMINATION TEST OF SEED CORN 

Object. — To test the vitality of seed corn. 

Explanation. — If the field of corn examined in Exercise 2 
shows a poor stand, the largest possible yield was not 
secured. A poor stand of corn may be due to a poorly 
prepared seed bed, but is very often due to the low vitality 
of the seed corn. Early in the winter corn usually contains 
an abnormally high per cent of moisture. If a severe freeze 
occurs while it is in this condition, the vitality is likely to be 
impaired or destroyed. If seed corn contains a high per 
cent of moisture at husking time, it should be properly 
dried out to keep it from molding, and placed under shelter 
to keep if from freezing. 

A man experienced in corn selection may be able to deter- 
mine with some accuracy by inspection whether or not corn 
will grow. But often an ear that will not grow has no out- 
ward indication of reduced vitality. It is impossible to 
determine definitely which ears of corn will not grow without 
making a germination test. 

Equipment. — 1. One hundred ears of corn. 

2. A germination tester or box as shown in Fig. 14. 

3. Sand. 

Directions. — Lay the ears of corn that are to be tested 
in a long row, side by side, where they will be undisturbed 

213 



214 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



^ tsD ft M» 




GERMINATION TEST OF SEED CORN 215 

until after the test is completed. Number the ears from one 
to one hundred. Commencing at the left end of the row, 
remove six kernels from each ear — two near the butt, two 
near the middle, and two near the tip. These kernels may 
be pulled out with the aid of a penknife and without injury 
to the kernels. Place the six kernels from ear No. 1 
in the sand of the germinator tip downward in square No. 1. 
Place the six kernels from ear No. 2 in square No. 2 in a 
similar manner. Place the kernels from all other ears which 
are to be tested in a like manner in the germinating tester in 
squares assigned to them. Keep the germinating tester 
moist and at a temperature of from 70° to 85° F. In five 
or six days the test should be complete. If the temperature 
has been below 70° F. much of the time, a longer period 
for the test will be required. Remove the kernels from the 
tester and count the number that germinated from each ear. 
Record on the squares of the diagram on the next page the 
number of kernels that germinated from each ear. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What per cent of ears shows perfect germination? 

2. What per cent of the kernels tested shows perfect germination? 

3. How many acres of corn will one hundred ears plant after 
the ears have been tipped, butted, and graded, assuming that one 
fourth of each ear is rejected for seed, if the rows are planted forty- 
two inches apart and the kernels twenty-one inches apart in the 
row? (Use figures determined in Ex. 20 for size of ear.) 

4. How many ears are necessary to plant sixty acres of corn ? 

5. How many bushels are necessary to plant sixty acres of corn, 
counting seventy pounds of ear corn to the bushel? 

6. How much time is actually required to perform the work of 
the germination test for one hundred ears ? 

7. How much time is required to perform the work of the ger- 
mination test for sixty acres? 



216 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
Diagram of Squares showing Record of Germination 

Number of tester 

Date of starting test 

Date of completing test. 

Name of variety 

Source of seed 

123456 789 10 



a. 






















b. 






















c. 






















d. 






















e. 






















f. 






• 
















g- 






















h. 






















'■ 






















]• 























STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 217 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 58 

THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE BARLEY 
PLANT 

Object. — To study the germination of the barley kernel 
and the early growth and development of the plant. 

Explanation. — The kernel of barley is not like the kernel 
of wheat, though it is somewhat similar. It is inclosed within 
a hull. The hull adheres to the kernel as in oats, and with it 
comprises the grain. The germ of the barley kernel occupies 
a small place at one end of the kernel, as in wheat and oats. 

When the kernel of barley germinates, it usually sends out 
five temporary roots. These five roots help supply the small 
plant with food until the permanent root system develops. 

Equipment. — 1. Plants of barley, one, two, three, and four 
weeks old, seeded one inch deep. 

2. Plants of barley two and four weeks old, seeded three 
inches deep. 

Directions. — Dig up a number of small barley plants for 
this study. Observe the same precautions in preparing the 
plants for study as were observed with wheat. (See Ex. 16.) 

Make a study of plants one week old, two weeks old, three 
weeks old, and four weeks old, seeded one inch. Also make a 
study of plants two weeks old and four weeks old, seeded 
three inches. (In determining age of plant count time from 

218 



THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE BARLEY PLANT 219 

date of seeding.) Make drawings of the plants at the differ- 
ent stages of growth and from the different depths of planting. 
Show in drawings the five temporary roots which develop 
first, and in other drawings the permanent roots which de- 
velop somewhat later, and are sent out in whorls from the 
nodes. Show how the distance between the temporary roots 
and the whorl of permanent roots depends upon the depth of 
planting. Show how the older plants, by sending out new 
stems, begin to tiller. Group the drawings so that they will 
appear well on the page. The drawings should include the 
root system, stems, and leaves and their arrangement. 



220 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 221 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 59 
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE OAT PLANT 

Object. — To study the germination of the oat kernel and 
the early growth and development of the plant. 

Explanation. — The kernel of oats is not like the kernel of 
wheat, though it is somewhat similar. It is inclosed within 
a hull. The hull adheres to the oat kernel and with it com- 
prises the oat grain. The germ of the oat kernel occupies a 
small place at one end of the kernel, as in wheat. 

When the kernel of oats germinates, it sends out three 
temporary roots. These three roots help supply the small 
plant with food until the permanent root system develops. 

Equipment. — 1. Plants of oats one, two, three, and four 
weeks old, seeded one inch deep. 

2. Plants of oats two and four weeks old, seeded three 
inches deep. 

Directions. — Dig up a number of small oat plants for 
this study. Observe the same precaution in preparing these 
plants for study as was observed with wheat. 

Make a study of plants one week old, two weeks old, three 
weeks old, and four weeks old, seeded one inch deep. Also 
make a study of plants two weeks old and four weeks old, 
seeded three inches deep. (In determining age of plant count 
time from date of seeding.) 

222 



THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE OAT PLANT 223 

Make drawings of the plants at the different stages of 
growth and from the different depths of planting. Show in 
drawings the three temporary roots that develop first, and 
in other drawings the permanent roots that develop some- 
what later and are sent out in whorls from the nodes. Show 
how the distance between the temporary roots and the whorl 
of permanent roots depends upon the depth of planting. 
Show how the older plants begin to tiller by sending out new 
stems. 

Group the drawings so that they will appear well on the 
page. The drawings should include the root system, stems, 
and leaves and their arrangement. 



224 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 225 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 60 
JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

Object. — To study the draft horse and observe those 
factors that affect its quality and worth. 

Explanation. — The draft horse is used principally for 
hauling heavy loads. In order to perform its work success- 
fully it must be large of frame, well muscled, and heavy 
in weight. It is not necessary for the draft horse to 
be a rapid mover, yet freedom of action and good move- 
ment, when associated with weight and good muscular 
development, are always desirable. In judging draft horses 
care should be taken not to mistake fat for muscle. 
It is often difficult to observe defects in a fat draft horse 
that would be perfectly evident in an animal of thin 
flesh. 

Equipment. — A good draft horse. 

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate 
the value of each point given in the accompanying score card. 
While judging the animal by the score card, have in mind an 
ideal draft horse. You can obtain an idea of an ideal draft 
horse from the best individuals seen at fairs or stock shows, 
and from pictures of prize-winning animals that appear in 
every good farm paper. With the picture of an ideal animal in 
mind compare each point of the animal you are scoring with 

226 



JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 227 

the ideal. The standard score on the score card refers to an 
ideal animal. In judging each point record the number of 
points that the animal falls below the ideal. The accom- 
panying photograph, Fig. 15, shows the location of the 
points described on the score card that should be observed 
in judging a draft horse. 

General Appearance 19 Per Cent. — The height, weight, form, 
quality, and temperament are the most important factors 
to consider in the general appearance of the draft horse. 
Estimate the height of the horse. The height of a horse is 
taken by measuring from the ground to the top of the withers, 
and is usually expressed in hands. A hand is four inches. 
After recording the estimated height, measure the horse and 
record its actual height. 

A draft horse must weigh 1600 pounds. If a draft horse 
weighs less than this and is of draft type, it is called a " wagon 
horse/' or " chunk." The best draft horse weighs a ton or 
over. 

The heavy weight of the draft horse should be due to its 
massiveness and great muscular development rather than to 
fat. Great weight is desirable in a draft horse because it 
holds him on the ground and enables him to secure a foot- 
hold when starting heavy loads. 

Estimate the weight of the horse and record the estimate. 
If possible, take the horse to a scale and weigh it and record 
its actual weight. 

In form the draft horse should be blocky , well proportioned, 
and symmetrical. It should have good quality, as indicated 
by clean bone, fine hair, and loose skin. The temperament 
should be energetic and the disposition good. 



228 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 




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JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 229 

Head and Neck 9 Per Cent. — The head and neck of the 
draft horse should be of such form and shape as to give 
the horse a stylish and pleasing appearance. The face should 
be straight; the eyes large, clear, and bright; the ears erect 
and of medium size, and the neck well muscled and arched. 
Note the teeth and eyes to see that they are good. 

Forequarters 24 Per Cent. — The shoulder furnishes the 
surface against which the collar rests. It should be smooth 
and strong. If rough and uneven, continual pulling against 
the collar will develop sores and unsoundness. See that the 
shoulders are not sweenied. This is a sinking of the muscles 
of the shoulder, making it appear flat and bare of muscle. 
The slope of the shoulder should be about forty-five degrees as 
this affords the greatest comfort under the collar. The forearm 
should be clean and strongly muscled. The cannon should 
be short, wide, and clean. Examine the cannon for splints. 
Splints may occur on any part of the region and appear as 
hard, rough protrusions on the bone. Do not mistake the 
two small bones associated with the cannon for splints. 
These bones occur in the same location on both legs and may 
be recognized in this way. The pasterns should have an 
angle of about forty-five or fifty degrees when viewed from 
the side. This affords spring to the gait and tends to pre- 
vent foot and leg troubles. 

The feet of the draft horse should be large, even sized, and 
sound. The foot should be attached to the leg so that the 
toe is straight ahead. If the horse toes in, it will " wing," 
or throw its feet out when it brings them forward. If the 
horse toes out, it will " paddle," or throw its feet in when it 
brings them forward. The toe should slope at an angle of 



230 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



about forty-five or fifty degrees, thus harmonizing with the 
slope of the pastern. 

Body 9 Per Cent. — The chest should be deep and wide, and 
the ribs should be long and well sprung. This affords plenty 
of room for the development of the heart and lungs and thus 
indicates a good strong constitution. The back and loin 






Fig. 16. — Rear view of hind legs of horses. A vertical line drawn down- 
ward from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the 
hock, cannon, pastern, and foot. Cut A represents the right conforma- 
tion. B and C are common defects. (After John A. Craig.) 

should be straight, short, broad, thickly and strongly muscled. 
The underline should be low and flanks full. 

Hindquarters 30 Per Cent. — The hindquarters of the draft 
horse should be heavy and well muscled, for it is irj this part 
of the animal that the greatest force is exerted when pulling. 
The hips of the draft horse should be broad but smooth, and in 
proportion to the rest of the body. The croup should be 
level, wide, and fairly long. The quarters and thighs should 
be broad and heavily muscled. 



JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 



231 



Examine the hock from the front of the horse and observe 
its outline. It should be large, clean, strong, and well set. 
See Figs. 16 and 17. Examine the hocks for bone spavins. 
This is the most common trouble of the hocks, and when 






Fig. 17. — Side view of hind legs of horses. A vertical line drawn downward 
from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the 
gaskin in the middle ; and a vertical line drawn from the point of the 
buttock should coincide with the angle of the hock and pastern joints. 
Cut A represents the right conformation. B and C are common defects. 
(After John A. Craig.) 

visible, appears as a bony enlargement on the lower inner side 
of the hock joint. 

The fetlocks should be wide, strong, and clean, and the pas- 
terns strong and springy. The feet should be large, even 
sized, and clean. 

Action 9 Per Cent. — Walk the horse and observe its action. 
Its movement should be fast for a heavy horse, elastic, and 
regular, and the feet should move in a straight line. 

Trot the horse and see that its movement is free, springy, 
straight, and balanced. See that it does not " wing " or 
" paddle." Examine the horse for unsoundness of wind 
after trotting. 



232 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



SCORE CARD 

Draft Horses 





Stand- 
ard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


General Appearance — 19 per cent 
1. Height, estimated, hands ; actual, 
















2. Weight, over 1600 lb., estimated, 

lb.; actual, lb., according to 


6 














3. Form, broad, massive, well propor- 
tioned, blocky, symmetrical . . . 


4 










4. Quality, refined ; bone, clean, hard, 
large, strong ; tendons, clean, de- 
fined ; skin and hair fine .... 


6 










5. Temperament, energetic; disposition, 
good 


3 










Head and Neck — 9 per cent 
6. Head, lean, proportionate size ; pro- 
file, straight 


1 










7. Ears, medium size, well carried, alert 


1 










8. Forehead, broad, full 


1 










9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, same color 


2 












1 










11. Muzzle, neat; nostrils, large, open, 
free from discharge ; lips, thin, even, 
firm 


1 










12. Neck, well muscled, arched ; throat- 
latch, clean ; windpipe, large . 

Carried forward 


2 





















STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 233 

Draft Horses — Continued 





Stand- 
ard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Brought forward 

Forequarters — 24 per cent 
13. Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth, 
snug, extending into back . . . 


3 










14. Arm, short, strongly muscled, thrown 
back, well set 


1 










15. Forearm, strongly muscled, wide, clean 


2 










16. Knees, deep, straight, wide, strongly 
supported 


2 










17. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons, 
defined, set back 


2 










18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 


1 










19. Pasterns, moderate length, sloping, 
strong, clean 


2 










20. Feet, large, even size, sound ; horn, 
dense, waxy ; sole, concave ; bars, 
strong; frog, laige, elastic; heel, 
wide, and one fourth to one half 
the lineal length of toe .... 


8 










21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular 
line from the point of the shoulder 
should fall upon the center of the 
knee cannon, pastern, and foot. 
From the side, a perpendicular line 
dropping from the center of the 
elbow joint should fall upon the cen- 
ter of the knee and pastern joints 
and back of the hoof 


3 























234 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Draft Horses — Continued 





Stand- 
ard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Brought forward 

Body — 9 per cent 
22. Chest, deep, wide, large girth . . . 


2 










23. Ribs, long, well sprung, close ; coupling, 


2 














24. Back, straight, broad, strongly muscled 


2 










25. Loins, wide, short, thickly muscled 


2 










26. Underline, low ; flanks, full .... 


1 










Hindquarters — 30 per cent 
27. Hips, broad, smooth, level, well mus- 


2 














28. Croup, not markedly drooping, wide, 
heavily muscled 


2 










29. Tail, stylishly set and carried . . . 


1 
3 










30. Quarters, deep, broad, heavily mus- 
cled ; thighs, strong 










31. Gaskins, long, wide, heavily muscled . 


2 










32. Hocks, large, clean, strong, wide, well 


6 










Carried forward 















STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 

Draft Horses — Continued 



235 





Stand- 
ard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Brought forward 
33. Cannons, short, wide, clean ; tendons, 


2 














34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean . 


1 










35. Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, 
clean 


2 










36. Feet, large, even size, sound ; horn, 
dense, waxy ; sole, concave ; bars, 
strong ; frog, large, elastic ; heel, 
wide, and one fourth to one half the 
lineal length of toe 


G 










37. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpen- 
dicular line from the point of the but- 
tock should fall upon the center of 
the hock, cannon, pastern, and foot. 
From the side, a perpendicular line 
from the hip joint should fall upon 
the center of the foot and divide the 
gaskin in the middle, and a perpen- 
dicular line from the point of the 
buttock should run parallel with the 
line of the cannon 


3 










Action — 9 per cent 
38. Walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight . 


6 










39. Trot, free, springy, balanced, straight . 


3 










Total 


100 















EXERCISE 61 
JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

Object. — To study the light horse and observe those 
factors that affect its quality and worth. 

Explanation. — There are three general types of light 
horses ; namely, the coach or carriage horse, the saddle 
horse, and the roadster horse. The coach or carriage horse 
is distinguished by its plumpness, symmetry, and action. It 
is well muscled over all parts of the body. Its head is small, 
lean, and attractive ; neck long and graceful ; limbs clean, 
and body plump and round. It is valued for its graceful 
carriage and stylish action. In the roadster horse style and 
graceful movement have been sacrificed somewhat for speed 
and endurance. Besides having speed and endurance the 
roadster must be well mannered and safe. In conformation 
this type lacks the fullness and symmetry of the coach horse, 
is lighter in weight, and is more rangey in appearance. 

In conformation the saddle horse is intermediate between 
the coach and roadster horse. It resembles the roadster 
more than the coach horse. The saddle horse is prized for 
its graceful movement and comfortable gait under the saddle. 

Equipment. — A good driving or riding horse. 

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate 
the value of each point given on the accompanying score 

236 



JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 237 

card. Have in your mind a picture of the ideal light horse. 
An idea of a good light horse may be obtained by studying 
the pictures of the best animals as they appear in good farm 
papers, and by observing good light horses at fairs and stock 
shows. The standard score on the score card refers to an 
ideal animal. In judging each point record the number of 
points that the animal falls below the ideal. The accom- 
panying photograph, Fig. 18, shows the location of the 
points described on the score card that should be observed 
in judging a light horse. 

General Appearance 12 Per Cent. — In general appearance 
the light horse should have a smooth, symmetrical form and 
stylish appearance. The quality of the animal should be 
good, as shown by a firm, clean bone and fine skin and hair. 
In temperament it should be energetic and active, but gentle 
and kind in disposition. 

Head and Neck 6 Per Cent. — The shape of the head and 
neck of the horse adds greatly to its appearance. It is chiefly 
from this standpoint that they are important. The head 
should be straight and thin, the features of the face distinct 
and broad enough between the eyes to give a pleasing appear- 
ance. The nostrils should be large and open ; eyes large, 
bright, and indicating vigor ; ears erect and somewhat pointed, 
and neck well muscled, arched, and joined smoothly to the 
body. 

Forequarters 23 Per Cent. — The shoulders should be long 
and oblique to give the action desired, and to add strength to 
the back and length to the underline. The forelegs should 
present a clean-cut appearance, should be broad, cordy, 
straight, and free from coarseness. The cannon should be 



238 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 






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JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 239 

wide, showing very little shrinkage below the knee, as a broad 
support is necessary for the knee joint. A common-size driv- 
ing horse should measure at least eight inches around the 
cannon at this joint. The pasterns should be strong and 
should slope at an angle of forty-five degrees with the 
ground. The feet should be of medium size and of good 
quality, the frog large, and the heel wide. Examine the 
feet and legs for unsoundness as in judging the draft horse. 

Body 10 Per Cent. — The light horse should have a deep 
rather than a broad chest as it is not called upon for heavy 
work, and a broad chest would interfere with the free play 
of the shoulder, which is very desirable in this class of horses. 
The ribs should be well sprung, as horses with well-sprung 
ribs present a better appearance and are usually easier 
keepers. In proportion the body should be short above 
and long underneath, as this adds strength and gives the 
legs free play. The loin should be short, broad, and 
muscled. 

Hindquarters 29 Per Cent. — The croup should be well 
muscled and long. Length of croup allows greater length of 
muscle in this region and insures greater speed. The hind- 
quarters should be heavily muscled and when viewed from 
behind should show a heavy muscular development between 
the legs. The hind legs should be well carried ; if bent too 
far forward they are likely to develop a curb, while if too 
straight, they are more subject to thoroughpins or spavins. 
The hock should be broad, allowing plenty of room for the 
attachment of muscles. The hock should be carefully exam- 
ined for unsoundness. The hind cannon should be wide, 
short, and clean ; the hind pasterns of medium size and length. 



240 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

The hind feet should be of medium size, and should have 
strong, wide heels and full fronts. 

Action 20 Per Cent. — Walk the horse back and forth and 
observe the action. The step should be quick, elastic, and 
balanced. Trot the horse and notice its action when moving 
more rapidly. It should have free action, a rapid, straight, 
and regular movement, and if a coach horse, its action should 
be high. 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



241 



SCORE CARD 

Light Horses 





Stand- 
ard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


General Appearance — 12 per cent 
1. Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish . . 


4 










2. Quality, bone, clean, firm, and indicat- 
ing sufficient substance ; tendons, 
defined ; hair and skin, fine .... 


4 










3. Temperament, lactive ; kind disposition 


4 










Head and Neck — 6 per cent 
4. Head, lean, straight 












5. Muzzle, fine ; nostrils, large ; lips, thin, 
even ; teeth, sound 












6. Eyes, full, bright, clear, large . . . 












7. Forehead, broad, full 












8. Ears, medium sized, pointed, well car- 
ried, and not far apart 












9. Neck, muscled ; crest, high ; throat- 
latch, fine ; windpipe, large .... 












Forequarters — 23 per cent 
10. Shoulders, long, smooth, with muscle 
oblique, extending into back . . . 


2 










11. Arms, short, thrown forward . . . 


1 










12. Forearms, muscled, long, wide . . . 


2 










13. Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, 
strongly supported 


2 










14. Cannons, short, wide ; sinews, large, set 


2 















Carried forward 
R 



242 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Light Horses — Continued 



Scale of Points 



Stand- 
ard 



Points Deficient 



Stu- 
dent's 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 
Score 



Stu- 
dent's 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 
Score 



Brought forward 

15. Fetlocks, wide, straight 

16. Pasterns, strong; angle with ground 

forty-five degrees 

17. Feet, medium, even sized, straight ; 

horn, dense ; frog, large, elastic ; bars, 
strong ; sole, concave ; heel, wide . 

18. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular 

line from the point of the shoulder 
should fall upon the center of the 
knee, cannon, pastern, and foot. From 
the side, a perpendicular line drop- 
ping from the center of the elbow 
joint should fall upon the center of 
the knee and pastern joints and back 
of hoof 

Body — 10 per cent 

19. Withers, muscled and well finished at 

top 

20. Chest, deep, low ; large girth . . . 

21. Ribs, long, sprung, close 

22. Back, straight, short, broad, muscled . 

23. Loin, wide, short, thick 

24. Underline, long; flank let down . . 

Hindquarters — 29 per csnt 

25. Hips, smooth, wide, level 

26. Croup, long, wide, muscular . . . . 

27. Tail, attached high, well carried . . . 
Carried forward 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 
Light Horses — Continued 



243 





Stand- 
ard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Brought forward 
28. Thighs, long, muscular, spread ; open 


2 














29. Quarters, heavily muscled, deep . . . 


2 










30. Gaskin or lower thighs, long, wide, 


2 














31. Hocks, clearly defined, wide, straight . 


5 










32. Cannons, short, wide ; sinews, large, set 


2 














33. Fetlocks, wide, straight 


1 










34. Pasterns, strong, sloping 


2 










35. Feet, medium, even sized, straight ; 
horn, dense ; frog, large, elastic ; bars, 
strong ; sole, concave ; heel, wide, high 


4 










36. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendic- 
ular line from point of the buttock 
should fall upon the center of the 
hock, cannon, pastern, and foot. 
From the side, a perpendicular line 
from the hip joint should fall upon 
the center of the foot and divide the 
gaskin in the middle ; and a perpen- 
dicular line from the point of the 
buttock should run parallel with the 
line of the cannon 


4 










Action — 20 per cent 
37. Walk, elastic, quick, balanced . . . 


5 












15 










Total 


100 















EXERCISE 62 
COMPARATIVE JUDGING OF HORSES 

Object. — To place the animals of a class of horses accord- 
ing to their worth. 

Explanation. — When a good horseman selects a valuable 
horse, he has in mind an ideal of the type of animal that 
he wants. He makes a careful study of all the points of 
the animal and chooses the individual that most nearly 
meets his ideal. If he is placing a class of horses, he makes 
a careful study of each individual in the class and places 
the best individual first. The other animals of the class 
are in a similar way placed in the order of their worth. 

It is necessary for the beginner who wants to become pro- 
ficient in the judging of horses to study the quality of the 
individuals of the class and to become familiar with the 
characteristics that affect value. After becoming familiar 
with each animal, he can then place them according to their 
merits. 

Equipments. — A class of four good draft horses or a class 
of four good driving horses. All the animals of the class 
should be of about the same age and same condition of flesh. 1 

1 The instructor may use his own judgment in selecting a class 
of animals. Sometimes one class will be more easily available than 
the other. If it is impossible to obtain a class of four, the exercise 
can be conducted with two animals. 

244 



COMPARATIVE JUDGING OF HORSES 245 

Directions. — Number the animals from one to four and 
place them side by side. Examine thoroughly and systemati- 
cally all the animals in the class. Keep in mind the relative 
value of the points discussed on the score card. After this 
thorough examination decide which animal is best. This 
can be done by balancing the good and bad points of one ani- 
mal against those of another. When the best animal is 
selected, record its rank in the blank space opposite its num- 
ber on the outline form of Student's Notes and Report. In 
like manner choose the second best animal in the class and 
record its rank in the space opposite its number. The third 
and fourth animals are to be placed and recorded in the same 
manner. 

Discuss fully under " Student's Notes and Report " the good 
and bad points of each animal in the class. Discuss them in 
the order of your placing. Give in detail the reasons for 
placing each animal as you did. 



246 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



Order of Numbering 
the Class 


Order of Student's 
Placing 


Correct Placing 


1 






2 






3 






4 







STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 247 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



248 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 63 
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

Object. — To study the dairy cow and observe those 
factors that affect her quality and worth. 

Explanation. — A dairy cow is used primarily for the pro- 
duction of milk and butter fat. The most profitable dairy 
cow is the one that produces the maximum amount of milk 
and butter fat for a given amount of feed. Two methods 
are used in selecting profitable dairy cows. One method of 
selection is to consider the record of the animal and from 
this record to determine her ability to produce milk and 
butter fat. The other method of selection is to consider 
the form or conformation of the animal. The first method 
is the better because the actual record of the animal is con- 
sidered. This method cannot always be employed because 
the record of the dairy cow is not always available. When 
the record of the cow is not available, the only means of de- 
termining her value is by studying her form and conforma- 
tion. High milk production is usually associated with a 
definite form or conformation. The dairy cow is thin and 
muscular and in this respect differs from the beef animal. 
This condition is due not to her inability to utilize food 
economically, but to her tendency to convert the food con- 
sumed into milk rather than into body fat. 

249 



250 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Equipment. — A good dairy cow. 

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate 
the value of each point given on the accompanying score 
card. While judging the animal by the score card, have in 
mind an ideal animal. You can obtain an idea of an ideal 
animal from the best individuals that you have seen at stock 
shows and fairs, or from pictures of the winners at the Inter- 
national Live Stock Show. With the picture of an ideal 
animal in mind compare each point of the animal you are 
scoring with the ideal. 

The standard score on the score card refers to the ideal 
animal. In judging each point record the number of points 
that the animal falls below the ideal. The accompanying 
photograph, Fig. 19, shows the location of the points de- 
scribed on the score card that should be observed in judging a 
dairy cow. 

The Head 8 Per Cent. — Examine the general appearance 
of the head and note the size of the muzzle. The muzzle 
should be broad, for this is usually associated with a good 
feeder. The face of the dairy cow should be of good length 
and free from extra flesh. A fleshy face is not associated with 
high milk production. The eyes should be large, mild, and 
quiet but not drowsy. A large milk production is not asso- 
ciated with a drowsy eye. The ears should be of medium 
size, fine textured, and well supplied on the inside with waxy 
secretion of yellow color. The waxy secretion yellow in 
color indicates vigor and general good health in the animal. 

Forequarters 10 Per Cent. — The throat should be thin and 
clean-cut. The neck should be of medium length, thin, and 
free of flesh, in direct contrast to the beef animal. A short, 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 



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252 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

beefy neck does not denote high milk production. The 
neck should be joined smoothly to the shoulders, which 
should be sloping. It should be smooth and have a light 
brisket. The withers should be narrow and sharp, not 
broad and flat, as this indicates beefiness. The forelegs 
should be straight, clean, set well under the body, and well 
apart. Legs set too close together indicate lack of room 
for the development of lungs and heart, and therefore a poor 
constitution. 

Body 25 Per Cent. — The chest of the dairy cow should 
be deep and roomy, and have a broad floor, as these charac- 
teristics all indicate more room for the heart and lungs,, and 
consequently a strong constitution. The back should be 
straight and strong. A weak, sunken back is a common de- 
fect in dairy cows. It indicates insufficient strength to carry 
a heavy barrel. The vertebra or spinal processes along the 
spinal column should be prominent and open. The lateral 
nerves pass out between the vertebra, and plenty of room 
for these nerves is desirable. The barrel of the dairy cow is 
her storehouse for food. The dairy animal, to be profitable, 
must consume a large quantity of food and she must have a 
large barrel in which to store it. The ribs should be well 
sprung and wide apart, thus making' a large barrel possible. 
The loin should be broad and strong, especially broad to 
avoid trouble at time of parturition. 

Hindquarters 12 Per Cent. — The hips of the dairy cow 
should be prominent and wide apart, as this indicates both 
capacity in the barrel and room in the pelvic region. The 
rump should be long, and high at the tail head. A long 
rump is associated with plenty of room for udder attachment. 



JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 253 

The tail should be thin, tapering, and long, the tail bone ex- 
tending at least to the hocks, as a long tail is associated with 
a high nervous development, much desired in a dairy cow. 
The hind legs should set well apart, especially at the hocks, 
thus allowing plenty of room for the development of the 
udder. 

Mammary Development 30 Per Cent. — The udder is the 
most important part of the dairy cow. It should be attached 
high behind and carried well forward, thus affording the 
maximum amount of room for its development. It should 
be flexible, and when empty, drop into folds. A fleshy udder 
is not desirable, as there is not sufficient room for the secre- 
tory glands. The quarters should be even and not cut up. 
The teats should be wide apart, uniformly placed, and of 
convenient size, which qualities aid in milking and insure 
greater capacity in the udder. A thorough examination 
should be made to see that all teats are perfect. A stream 
of milk should be drawn from each teat. The milk veins 
should be large and twisting, and should extend well forward. 
The size of the milk veins indicates the amount of blood 
that can pass through the circulation to the udder. The 
milk wells or cavities where the milk veins pass into the body 
should be large and numerous. Examine the cow and de- 
termine the number of milk wells. Every cow has two milk 
wells, and some cows have as many as fourteen. 

General Appearance 15 Per Cent. — The disposition of the 
dairy cow should be quiet and gentle, yet she should show 
indications of a high nervous development well under con- 
trol, since this characteristic indicates milk production. 
Health and vigor will be determined by her wide-awake 



254 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

appearance and by the quality of her hair and hide. A 
strong constitution is shown by a deep, broad chest. Quality 
is indicated by a soft, thin, mellow hide. Determine this by 
gathering up a handful of hide over the last two or three 
ribs. The hair should be fine and the secretions oily and 
abundant, as this indicates a healthy condition. 

Temperament, or the tendency to dairy performance, is 
indicated by the general appearance of the animal. She 
should give the impression of being an individual capable of 
converting food into milk. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 



255 



THE SCORE CARD 
Dairy Cattle — Cow 



Scale of Points 


Stand- 
ard 


1 

Points De- 
ficient 


2 
Points De- 
ficient 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Head — 8 per cent 
1. Muzzle, broad 












2. Jaw, strong, firmly joined .... 












3. Face, medium length, clean .... 












4. Forehead, broad between eyes, dishing 












5. Eyes, large, full, mild, bright .... 


2 










6. Ears, medium size, fine texture, secre- 
tions oily and abundant, yellow color 


2 










Forequarlers — 10 per cent 
7. Throat, clean 


i 










8. Neck, long, spare, smoothly joined to 
shoulders, free from dewlap . . . 


2 










9. Withers, narrow, sharp 


3 










10. Shoulders, sloping, smooth, brisket, light 


3 










11. Forelegs, straight, clean, well set under 
body 


1 










Body — 25 per cent 
12. Crops, free from fleshiness .... 


1 ~ 










13. Chest, deep, roomy ; floor, broad . . 


6 










14. Back, straight, strong, vertebra open . 


3 










15. Ribs, long, deep, sprung, wide apart . 


3 










16. Barrel, deep, long, capacious .... 


10 










17. Loin, broad, strong 


2 










Carried forward 













256 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Dairy Cattle — Cow — Continued 



Scale of Points 


Stand- 
ard 


1 
Points De- 
ficient 


2 
Points De- 
ficient 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Hindquarters — 12 per cent 
18. Hips, prominent, wide apart .... 


1 










19. Rump, long, level, not sloping . . . 


4 










20. Pin bones, wide apart 


1 










21. Tail, neatly set on, long, tapering . . 


1 










22. Thighs, spare, not fleshy 


3 










23. Hind legs, well apart, giving ample 
room for udder 


2 










Mammary Development — 30 per cent 
24. Udder, large, very flexible, attached 
high behind, carrying well forward ; 
quarters, even, not cut up ... . 


15 










25. Teats, wide apart, uniformly placed, 
convenient size 


5 










26. Milk veins, large, tortuous, extending 
well forward 


4 










27. Milk wells, large 


6 










General Appearances — 15 per cent 
28. Disposition, quiet, gentle 


2 










29. Health, thrifty, vigorous 


3 










30. Quality, free from coarseness through- 
out ; skin, soft, pliable ; secretions, 
abundant ; hair, fine 


4 










31. Temperament, inherent tendency to 
dairy performance 


6 










Total 


100 















EXERCISE 64 
JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 

Object. — To study the beef animal and observe those 
factors that affect its quality and worth. 

Explanation. — The principal purpose of beef cattle is the 
production of meat. The beef animal that most nearly meets 
the demands of the butcher is the one that the farmer 
should produce. The animal that brings the highest price on 
the market is the one that will dress the highest per cent of 
salable meat and will have a maximum amount of this meat 
located in those parts of the body from which the most valu- 
able cuts are secured. 

Equipment — 1. A good beef steer. 

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate 
the value of each point given on the accompanying score 
card. While judging the animal by the score card, have in 
mind an ideal animal. You can obtain an idea of an ideal 
animal from the best individuals that you have seen at stock 
shows and fairs, or from pictures of the winners at the In- 
ternational Live Stock Show. With the picture of an ideal 
animal in mind compare each point of the animal you are 
scoring with the ideal. The standard score on the score 
card refers to an ideal animal. In judging each point record 
the per cent that the animal falls below the ideal. The 
s 257 



258 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

accompanying photograph, Fig. 20, shows the location of 
the points described on the score card that should be ob- 
served in judging a beef animal. 

General Appearance 40 Per Cent. — The value of an animal 
as a meat producer depends upon its form, quality, condition, 
and weight. Form has reference to the shape of the animal. 
The shape of the animal should be such that it will carry 
the maximum amount of the most valuable cuts of meat. 
Quality is determined by the condition of the bone, hair, 
skin, and flesh. Good quality means that the animal has 
clean bone, soft, mellow skin, general refinement of features 
and appearance, and all parts of the body covered thickly 
and evenly with firm, mellow flesh. Condition refers to the 
finish of the animal. The animal is said to be finished when 
it is fat. A fat animal will produce a higher per cent of 
dressed meat, and the meat is more valuable because it is 
more tender and palatable. 

In addition to these factors the weight of the animal for 
its age should also be considered. Estimate the weight of 
the animal before weighing and record your estimate on the 
blank in the score card. Take the animal to stock scales 
if possible and determine its actual weight. 

Head and Neck 7 Per Cent. — Examine the general appear- 
ance of the head and neck. Note the size of muzzle; the 
muzzle should be broad, the mouth large, and the nostrils 
large and open, for these qualities denote a good feeder. 
The neck should be short, broad, and refined, and in correct 
proportion to the rest of the body. 

Forequarters 9 Per Cent. — The shoulder should fit smoothly 
into the body without too much prominence of shoulder 



JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 



259 




260 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

blades. The lower part of the shoulder should be smooth, 
well covered with flesh, and not too heavy. The forelegs 
should be short, standing well apart, and the foreflank should 
be full. 

Body 30 Per Cent. — Observe the body from the side ; it 
should present the general outlines of a rectangle. The top 
line should be straight from head to tail. The bottom line 
should be low, straight, and parallel to the top line. The 
chest should be deep and full, and the hind flank should be 
full and even with the underline. 

Hindquarters 14 Per Cent. — Observe the animal from the 
rear. The hindquarters should be deep and as broad as 
the shoulders. The rump should be long and wide, and the 
tail head smooth. The twist should be deep and plump. 
The legs should be wide apart, straight, and short. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 



261 



THE SCORE CARD 

Beef Cattle — Fat 





Stand- 
ard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


General Appearance — 40 per cent 
1. Weight, estimated, lb. ; actual, 

lb., — according to age 


10 










2. Form, straight top and underline, 
deep, broad, low set, stylish, smooth, 
compact, symmetrical 


10 










3. Quality, fine, soft hair; loose, pliable 
skin of medium thickness ; dense, 
clean, medium-sized bone .... 


8 










4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm, 
mellow flesh ; free from patches, ties, 
lumps, and rolls ; full cod and flank 
indicating finish 


12 










Head and Neck — 7 per cent 
5. Muzzle, broad; mouth, large; nostrils, 
large and open 












6. Eyes, large, clear, placid 












7. Face, short; jaw, strong 












8. Forehead, broad, full 












9. Ears, medium size ; fine texture . . . 












10. Neck, short, thick, blending smoothly 
with shoulder ; throat, clean with light 
dewlap 


2 










Forequarters — 9 per cent 
11. Shoulder vein, full 


1 










12. Shoulders, smoothly covered, compact, 
snug, neat 


4 










Carried forward 













262 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 
Beef Cattle — Fat — Continued 





Stand- 
ard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dents 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dents 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Brought forward 
13. Brisket, trim, neat ; breast, full . . . 


52 

2 










14. Legs, wide apart, straight, short ; arm, 
full; shank, wide 


2 










Body — 30 per cent 
15. Chest, full, deep, wide ; girth, large ; 


4 














16. Ribs, long, arched, thickly and smoothly 
fleshed 


8 










17. Back, broad, straight, thickly and 
smoothly fleshed 


8 
8 










IS. Loin, thick, broad 










19. Flank, full, even with underline . . . 


2 










Hindquarters — 14 per cent 
20. Hips, smooth 


1 










21. Rump, long, wide, level; tail head, 
smooth ; pinbones, wide apart, not 
prominent 


3 










22. Thighs, deep, full 


4 










23. Twist, deep, plump 


4 










24. Legs, wide apart, straight, short ; 
shanks, fine, smooth 


2 










Total 


100 

















EXERCISE 65 
COMPARATIVE JUDGING OF CATTLE 

Object. — To place the animals of a class of cattle accord- 
ing to their worth. 

Explanation. — When a stockman goes into a herd of 
cattle, or when a judge goes into a show ring, he has in 
mind the type of animal that he desires for his purpose. 
If the judge is placing a class of beef cattle, he examines 
the entire class, keeping in mind the ideal beef animal, and 
chooses that individual for first which most nearly meets 
this ideal. In the same way he places in the order of their 
merit the other animals of the class. In a similar manner 
the judge of dairy cattle, keeping in mind the ideal dairy 
cow, awards the places in the dairy cattle class. 

It is necessary for the beginner who wants to become pro- 
ficient in judging cattle to study the characteristics of the 
individuals of the class and to become familiar with the char- 
acteristics that affect value. After becoming familiar with 
each animal the beginner can place it according to its 
merits. 

Equipment. — A class of four good dairy cows, or a class 
of four good beef steers, all the animals of the class to be of 
about the same age and same condition of flesh. 1 

1 In selecting a class of animals for this exercise the instructor 
should be governed by the relative importance of the two classes of 

263 



264 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Directions. — Number the animals from one to four and 
place them side by side. Examine thoroughly and systemati- 
cally all the animals in the class. Keep in mind the relative 
value of the points discussed in the score card. After this 
thorough examination decide which animal is best. This 
can be done by balancing the good and bad points of one 
animal against those of another. 

When the best animal is selected, record its rank in the 
space opposite its number. In like manner choose the 
second-best animal of the class and record its rank in the 
space opposite its number. The third and fourth animals in 
the class are placed in the same manner. Record their 
placings. 

Discuss fully under Student's Notes and Report the good 
and bad points of each animal in the class. Discuss them in 
the order of your placing. Give in detail the reasons for 
placing each animal as you did. 

animals in the community. If the dairy industry is of greater 
importance, a dairy class should be selected If not, a beef class 
should be selected. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 265 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



Order of Numbering 


Order of Student's 
Placing 


Correct Placing 


1 






2 






3 






4 







266 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 267 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 66 
JUDGING FAT HOGS 

Object. — To study the hog and observe those factors that 
affect its quality and worth. 

Explanation. — There are two general classes of hogs, 
commonly sold on the market, the fat or lard hog and the 
bacon hog. The lard or fat hog is short legged, broad, and 
of medium length. It fattens easily and is used on the 
market for making lard, supplying hams and shoulders, and 
furnishing cheap side meat. The bacon hog is long, deep, 
and narrow in body, has long legs, and is used chiefly for the 
production of bacon. 

The fat hog is best suited to the north central United 
States because of the abundance of corn in this region and 
the ability of the fat hog to fatten rapidly on this food. In 
some of the northern states of the United States and in 
Canada the bacon hog is generally produced. 

The fat hog that is in greatest demand is the one that will 
dress the largest percentage of good salable meat. It sup- 
plies the demand for good hams and shoulders, and furnishes 
a large amount of lard. 

Equipment. — A good fat hog. 

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate 
the value of each point given on the accompanying score 

268 



JUDGING FAT HOGS 



269 




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270 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

card. Have in your mind a picture of the ideal fat hog. An 
idea of an ideal hog may be obtained by studying pictures 
of winners at the International Live Stock Show or by ob- 
serving good individual specimens. The standard score on 
the score card refers to an ideal animal. In judging each 
point record the number of points that the animal falls 
below the ideal. The accompanying photograph, Fig. 21, 
shows the location of the points described on the score card 
that should be observed in judging a fat hog. 

General Appearance 30 Per Cent. — The general appear- 
ance of the fat hog is determined by the weight, form, quality, 
and covering of the animal. The weight of the hog will 
vary with age. Record your estimate of the weight of the 
hog. If possible, weigh the hog and record its actual weight. 
The best weight at which to market the fat hog varies with 
the demand and the supply of the market. As a rule fat 
hogs weighing from 200 to 300 pounds are the most profit- 
able for selling. 

The fat hog should be compactly built, round ribbed, 
and deep chested. Good quality is indicated by smooth, 
fine hair, clean, strong bone, and a general appearance of 
refinement. 

Head and Neck 8 Per Cent. — The head and neck of the 
fat hog have very little commercial value. In fact this 
portion of the animal is nearly all waste to the butcher. The 
head of the hog, however, shows character and feeding 
capacity. A broad head and a short neck are desirable 
because they are usually associated with feeding capacity, 
broad back, and heavy hams. 

Forequarters 1 2 Per Cent. — The most important part of the 



JUDGING FAT HOGS 271 

forequarters of a fat hog is the shoulders, which should 
be level on top, well packed with flesh, and broad and deep. 
The breast should be full, as this indicates a vigorous consti- 
tution. The legs should be straight, short, and strong, with 
hard, clean bone. 

Body 33 Per Cent. — The body is the most important part 
of the animal from the butcher's standpoint , for it is this part 
of the animal that supplies most of the dressed meat. The 
back should have a straight top line, although a gradual rise 
from both the neck and the tail to the center of the back 
usually renders the animal stronger and able to carry more 
flesh. The back should be broad and carry its width well 
forward and back. It should be evenly and thickly fleshed. 
The underline should run nearly parallel with the top line. 

Hindquarters 17 Per Cent. — The hams are the most im- 
portant part of the hindquarters. The ham should be wide, 
plump, full, and carry down well to the hock. The hind legs 
should be short, strong, and placed wide apart. 



272 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



SCORE CARD 
Judging Fat Hogs 





Stand- 
ard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


1 Cor- 
rected 
Score 


General Appearance — 30 per cent 

, Trr • i.. f Est 

1. Weight t Act 

Score according to age 


4 










2. Form, deep, broad, medium length ; 
smooth, compact, symmetrical, 
standing square on medium short 


10 














3. Quality, hair, smooth and 6ne ; bone, 
medium size, clean, strong ; general 
appearance, smooth and refined . . 


6 










4. Covering, finished, deep, even, mellow, 
free from lumps and wrinkles . . . 


10 










Head and Neck — 8 per cent 
5. Snout, medium length, not coarse , 


1 










6. Eyes, not -sunken, clear, not obscured 
by wrinkles 


1 














7. Face, short; cheeks, full 


1 










8. Ears, fine, medium size attached neatly 


1 










9. Jowl, full, firm, neat 


2 










10. Neck, thick, short, smooth to shoulder 


2 










Forequarlers — 12 per cent 

11. Shoulders, broad, deep, smooth, com- 
pact, on top 


8 










12. Breast, full, smooth, neat 


2 










13. Legs, straight, short, strong ; bone, 
clean, hard; pasterns, short, strong, 
upright; feet, medium size . . . 


2 










Carried forward 













STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 
Judging Fat Hogs — Continued 



273 





Stand- 
ard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Brought forward 

Body — 33 per cent 
14. Chest, deep, wide, large girth . . . 


4 










15. Sides, deep, full, smooth, medium 
length 


8 














16. Back, broad, strongly arched, thickly 
and evenly covered 


9 










17. Loin, wide, thick, strong 


9 










18. Belly, straight, smooth, 6rm .... 


3 










Hindquarters — 17 per cent 
19. Hips, wide apart, smooth 


3 










20. Rump, long, level, wide, evenly fleshed 


3 










21. Ham, heavily fleshed, full, firm, deep, 


9 














22. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone, 
clean, hard ; pasterns, short, strong, 
upright ; feet, medium sized . . . 


2 










Total 


100 















EXERCISE 67 
JUDGING MUTTON SHEEP 

Object. — To study the mutton sheep and observe those 
factors that affect its quality and worth. 

Explanation. — Sheep may be divided into two general 
types based upon the purpose for which they are bred. One 
type is bred chiefly for the production of mutton and the 
other type principally for the production of wool. For 
mutton purposes the most desirable sheep to produce is the 
one that most nearly fills the market demands. The sheep 
that most nearly meets the market demand for mutton is 
the ideal described in the accompanying score card. 

Equipment. — A good mutton sheep. 

Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate 
the value of each point given in the accompanying score 
card. Have in mind a clear understanding of the ideal 
mutton sheep. This may be gained by studying photographs 
of prize-winning sheep or by examining prize animals at fairs 
and stock shows. The standard score on the score card re- 
fers to the ideal animal. In judging each point record the 
number of points that the animal falls below the ideal. It 
is more difficult for beginners to judge sheep than any other 
class of live stock. On account of the length of the fleece it 
is difficult to determine by observation alone the form of the 

274 



JUDGING MUTTON SHEEP 275 

animal. It is necessary to handle every part of the sheep to 
determine its form. Therefore, sheep judging is done more 
with the hand than with the eye. To add to the difficulty 
of judging sheep by outside appearances nearly all showmen 
trim their sheep before placing them on exhibition. It is 
thus possible to cover up any weak points in the animal, and 
to make judging by any other method than that of handling 
absolutely impossible. 

In handling sheep do not disturb or break the fleece. Hold 
the hand flat with the fingers together in a sloping manner. 
Press the hand over the fleece and feel the form in this man- 
ner. Do not stick the fingers into the fleece, it makes breaks 
and allows both dirt and water to enter. When studying 
the length of wool, place the two hands, palms downward, 
over the spot to be examined and separate the wool by slowly 
moving the hands apart while firmly pressing the wool. This 
spreads the fleece naturally and does not injure it in any way. 

The accompanying photographs, Figs. 22 and 23, show the 
location of the points described on the score card that should 
be observed in judging a mutton sheep. 

General Appearance 38 Per Cent. — Most mutton sheep are 
sold on the market while they are lambs, under one year of age. 
Lambs weighing in the neighborhood of eighty pounds usually 
sell at the highest price on the market. In general appear- 
ance the mutton sheep should present a fullness and smooth- 
ness of outline which indicates thick and evenly distributed 
flesh. The animal should show good quality, as indicated 
by a clean bone, silky fleece, and fine pink skin. 

Head and Neck 7 Per Cent. — The head should show char- 
acter and should be short and broad. The eyes should be 




Figs. 22 and 23 

1. Muzzle 

2. Mouth 

3. Nostril 11. Shoulder vein 

4 - Lips 12. Top of shoulder 

5- Nose 13. Shoulder 

6. Face 14. Chest 

7. Forehead 15. Brisket 

8. Eye 16. Foreleg 



A mutton sheep, showing location ot parts. 

9. Ear 17. Back 

10. Neck 18. Loin 

19. Hip 

20. Ribs or side 

21. Fore flank 

22. Belly 

23. Flank 



24. Rump 

25. Leg of mutton 
or thigh 

26. Crop 

27. Dock or tail 

28. Twist 

29. Hind leg 



JUDGING MUTTON SHEEP 277 

clean, bright, and placid. The muzzle should be broad and 
open, indicating feeding capacity. The neck should be thick, 
short, and set well into the shoulders. 

Forequarters 7 Per Cent. — The shoulders should be com- 
pact on top, well covered with flesh, and of the required 
smoothness to give good form. The brisket should be neat 
and extend well forward. The breast should be wide and 
full, indicating health and a vigorous constitution. 

Body 20 Per Cent. — The chest should be wide, deep, and 
full, and the ribs well sprung to give plenty of room for the 
development of the lungs, heart, and digestive system. The 
back should be broad, straight, of good length, and thickly 
fleshed, and the loin should also be thick and broad, for in this 
region is located some of the highest priced meat. 

Hindquarters 16 Per Cent. — The leg of mutton, which repre- 
sents over 40 per cent of the value of the mutton carcass, 
is located in the hindquarter. For this reason a good de- 
velopment of this portion of the animal is highly desirable 
from the butcher's standpoint. The rump should be long, 
level, and wide, thighs full and deep, twist plump, and legs 
straight, short, and strong. 

Wool 12 Per Cent. — The wool should be of good length, 
dense, and evenly distributed over all parts of the body. A 
dense fleece is desirable because it produces more wool and 
affords greater protection to the sheep. The condition of 
the fleece should be good. It should be well supplied with 
yolk or oil, although too much is not desirable. It should 
be soft, light, and free from dirt and trash. The skin under 
the fleece should have a bright, pink color. A bluish tint is 
not desirable, as it indicates lack of vigor and health. 



278 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



SCORE CARD 

Mutton Sheep 





Stand- 
ard 
Score 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Age 

General Appearance — 3S per cent 
1. Weight, score according to age . . . 


8 








2. Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set, 


10 














3. Quality, clean bone; silky hair; fine 
pink skin; light in offal, yielding 
high percentage of meat .... 


10 










4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm 
flesh, especially in regions of valuable 
cuts. Points, indicating ripeness, are, 
thick dock, back thickly covered 
with flesh, thick neck, full purse, full 
flank, breast 


10 










5. Muzzle, fine; mouth, large; lips, thin; 
nostrils, large and open 












6. Eyes, large, clear, placid 












7. Face, short, features clean-cut . . 












8. Forehead, broad, full 












9. Ears, fine, alert 












10. Neck, thick, short, free from folds 


2 










Forequarlers — 7 per cent 
11. Shoulders, covered with flesh, compact 
on top, snug 


5 










12. Brisket, neat, proportionate; breast, 


1 














Carried forward 










' 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 279 

Mutton Sheep — Continued 





Stand- 
ard 
Score 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Brought forward 

13. Legs, straight, short, wide apart, 
strong ; forearm, full ; shank, smooth, 


1 














Body — 20 per cent 
14. Chest, wide, deep, full 


4 










15. Ribs, well sprung, long 


4 










16. Back, broad, straight, long, thickly 


6 














17. Loin, thick, broad, long 


6 










Hindquarters — 16 per cent 
18. Hips, far apart, level, smooth . . . 


2 










19. Rump, long, level, wide to tail-head . . 


4 










20. Thighs, full, deep, wide 


4 












5 










22. Legs, straight, short, strong ; shank, 
fine, smooth 


1 










Wool — 12 per cent 
23. Quantity, long, dense, even .... 


4 










24. Quality, fine, pure; crimp, close, regu- 
lar, even .... 


4 












4 














Total 


100 











EXERCISES 68 AND 69 
JUDGING A FARM 1 

Object. — To study a farm and become familiar with the 
factors that affect its value. 

Explanation. — The farm is the place of business and the 
manufacturing plant of the farmer. The farmer is a manu- 
facturer as truly as the man who builds stoves from iron or 
the man who produces iron from the ore. As the manu- 
facturer of stoves uses iron as raw material and produces 
stoves as the finished product, so the farmer uses the elements 
of nature, and manure or fertilizer, the plant food of the 
soil, as raw material, and from these produces grain and hay 
as finished products. He may carry the process of manu- 
facture one step farther and by feeding the grain and hay to 
cattle, produce beef or milk as the finished product. The 
farm, therefore, is a manufacturing plant and should be as 
well suited to the type of farming that the farmer wishes 
to pursue as the shop that the manufacturer builds is suited 
to his business. 

The farm, however, is more, or should be more, than a man- 
ufacturing plant merely. It should furnish a pleasant and 
healthful home for the farmer and his family. Thus, in 
judging a farm, both the advantages of the place for the 

1 Adapted from G. W. Warren's score card for judging farms. 

280 



JUDGING A FARM 281 

type of farming to be pursued and the desirability of the 
farm as a place to live must be considered. 

Directions. — Go to a near-by farm and make a thorough 
examination of the place. Keep in mind the purpose for 
which the farm is being used, whether grain farming, dairy- 
ing, fruit farming, general farming, etc. Make a journey 
over the fields, noting their shape, topography, character of 
the soil, drainage, and condition of the fences. After thor- 
oughly examining the fields, return to the farmstead and ob- 
serve the improvements, house, barn, orchards, water supply, 
etc. 

After the farm has been thoroughly examined fill in the 
score of the different points on the accompanying score card. 
In scoring designate the condition of each point by marking 
with E., V.G., G., F., P., V.P., standing for excellent, very 
good, good, fair, poor, or very poor. The figures in the 
standard score give the relative importance of the different 
points that appear on the score card for a farm used for gen- 
eral farming. The distribution of points would be differ- 
ent in specialized farming. For instance, for truck farms 
all points that have to do with ease of tillage would be given 
a higher rating, while fertility would be of less importance. 

Size 2 Per Cent. — The farm should not be too small. 
There are many farm operations that require two or more 
men for economical work, and a small farm requires as much 
machinery as a larger one. The fields should be long enough 
to be easily tilled, which is impossible on too small a farm. 
On the other hand, the farm should not be larger than it is 
possible to handle with the equipment and labor available. 

Fields 6 Per Cent. — The fields should be of good shape. 



282 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

If they must be fenced, a square field is the most economical. 
They should be of sufficient size to till easily and should be 
arranged as near the barns or feed lots as possible. 

Topography 6 Per Cent. — The farm should be level enough 
to make tillage easy and to prevent loss of fertility by wash- 
ing and the loss of soil by erosion. The fields should be roll- 
ing enough to furnish good, natural drainage. 

Fertility 12 Per Cent. — The soil should be in as high a 
state of natural fertility as possible. A soil in a low state 
of natural fertility cannot be made productive without the 
extensive use of expensive fertilizers. 

Physical Properties of the Soil 12 Per Cent. — The physical 
properties of the soil are as important as the soil's fertility. 
They determine the ease and earliness at which the soil can 
be worked. 

Drainage 5 Per Cent. — The soil should be well drained, 
either naturally or artificially. It is unprofitable to farm 
poorly drained land. 

Condition 5 Per Cent. — Condition refers to waste land, 
weeds, stone, stumps, etc. It is generally cheaper to buy a 
farm in good condition than to improve one in this respect. 

Climate. — While not given a score, climate should be 
considered in judging a farm, especially when topography 
or proximity to water influences the climate of different 
farms in the community. 

H ealthf ulness 4 Pe f Cent. — From a personal standpoint 
the healthfulness of the farm might be the most important 
fact to consider, and even from an economical standpoint it 
is an important factor. 

Location 25 Per Cent. — The location of the farm is undoubt- 



JUDGING A FARM 283 

edly the most important factor influencing its value. The 
distance to railways and markets influences greatly the cost 
of producing farm products and is the most important factor 
in determining the kind of farming to be practiced on the 
farm. Many kinds of farming, such as gardening and fruit 
growing, are possible if the farm is located a great distance 
from markets and railroads. The labor supply, the neigh- 
bors, the conveniences, such as telephone, trolleys, and rural 
mail routes, should be observed in considering the location 
of the farm. The distance to school, church, grange, etc., 
should also be considered. 

Taxes 1 Per Cent. — Taxes should be considered, for some 
farms admirably located near cities may be less desirable on 
account of the high tax rate. 

Water Supply 4 -Per Cent. — Running streams always add 
to the value of a farm. If running water is not present, the 
farm should have good wells. 

Improvements 18 Per Cent. — The house, barns, and other 
buildings should be suitable to the farm. Too extensive 
buildings or too poor or too small buildings are not desirable. 
The condition of the fences and their arrangement should 
be considered. Good orchards and vineyards are an asset 
to a farm. 



284 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

SCORE CARD FOR FARMS 



Name of Farm 



Points 


Standard 


Student's 
Score 


Size — 

1. Adapted to kind of farming 


2 




Fields — 


6 












Topography — 

1. As affecting ease of cultivation 3 

2. As affecting production .... .... 1 

3. As affecting erosion and loss of fertility .... 1.5 

4. As affecting air drainage 0.5 


6 




Fertility — 

1. Natural 8 

2. Condition 4 


12 








Physical Properties of the Soil — 

1. As affecting economy of cultivation "1 

2. As affecting number of days of labor / 

3. As affecting loss of fertility 1 

4. As affecting kinds of possible crops 2 


12 




Drainage — 

1. Natural 1 

2. Artificial J 


5 




Condition — 

1. Freedom from stumps, stones, weeds, waste land, etc. 5 


5 




Climate — 

1. As affecting animal and plant production . . . 

2. As affecting number of days of labor 






H ealth fulness — 

1. As an economic factor 


4 




Location — 

1. Distance to market 4 


25 












5. Neighbors as an economic factor 4 

6. Labor supply of neighborhood 1 

7. R. F. D., telephone, trolleys, etc 3 

8. Churches, school, grange, etc., as an economic factor 3 





STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 285 

Score Card for Farms — Continued 



Points 


Standard 


Student's 
Score 


Taxes — 

1. Per cent on cash value 


1 




Water — 


4 








Improvements — 


18 




2. House as adapted to needs of farm 6 

3. Other buildings 6 




4. Fences — kind, condition, arrangement .... 3 

5. Timber, orchards, vineyards, etc 2 





Total acres, 

Acres tillable, 

Per cent pasture, 

Acres, pasture not tillable, 

Acres, woods, 

Acres, roads, waste, etc., 

Estimated total value of 

Tillable area, 

Pasture, 

Woods, 

Barns, 

Houses, 

Total, 

Average value per acre, 

Price asked, 

Is the farm worth the price asked ?. 



286 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

What is the probable increase in land value of this farm ? 



Give the striking desirable features of the farm. 



Give the striking undesirable features of the farm. 



EXERCISE 70 
PLANNING THE HOME FARM 

Object. — To study the shape and arrangement of the 
fields of a farm in order to suggest ways for improvement. 

Explanation. — The cost of operating a farm is greatly 
influenced by the way in which the fields are laid out and 
arranged. On some farms, due to poor arrangement of the 
fields, it is often necessary to haul the crops produced a much 
greater distance to the barn or feed lot than would be nec- 
essary if the fields were more systematically arranged. The 
cost of fencing or cultivating fields poorly shaped and 
arranged is often greater than would be necessary with a 
better arrangement. 

In laying out the fields of a farm there are a number of 
factors that should be observed : 

1. The fields should be arranged so that long stretches of 
land may be cultivated without turning. It is always 
cheaper to cultivate long rows than short ones. Therefore, if 
the farm is small, the fields should be long and narrow. 

2. The roadways to the fields should be arranged to per- 
mit easy and direct access to all parts of the farm. 

3. The buildings should be so located that the haul to the 
fields will be as short as possible. The ideal arrangement 
on a large farm is to have the buildings centrally located. 

287 



288 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

4. The fields should be arranged to provide for a good 
rotation of crops. 

5. The fields should be arranged to reduce the cost of 
fencing to the minimum. As far as possible, the fences 
should run straight and at right angles to each other. A 
farm that has straight fences, roads, and fields presents a 
neat appearance. 

Equipment. — A foot rule divided into one-sixteenth inch 
divisions. 

Directions. — Make a drawing showing the plan of your 
home farm. Show the arrangement of fields, the position 
of the barns, feed lots, orchards, etc. If there are any wood 
lots on the farm, show their location and size ; show also the 
position of any waste lands, streams, etc. Show all fences, 
lanes, and roads on the place. Indicate on the map the crop 
that was on each field last year. Indicate also the crop that 
will be on the field next year. 

Make a careful study of the arrangement of the farm to 
see if the fields could be more conveniently arranged or 
changed in shape so that the expense for fencing would be 
less. Redraw the plan of the farm, making all changes that 
you think would better the farm in any way. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 289 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



290 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 71 

THE ARRANGEMENT OF FARM BUILDINGS AND 
PLANTINGS 

Object. — To study the arrangement of the buildings and 
plantings of a farm. 

Explanation. — The buildings and plantings around the 
farm home are usually located in what is called the farm- 
yard. The farmyard affords a setting for the buildings, 
provides access to the highway, well, and outbuildings, and 
provides space for various kinds of work. Everything about 
the yard should be convenient, the grades should be easy, 
the surface should be smooth and easy to mow, the walks 
should be pleasant, and the drives smooth and clean. 

The plantings around the farm buildings should be plain 
and simple. The trees and shrubs, to look best, should 
not be set in rows, but should be bunched around the sides 
of the yard and at the rear. It is usually advisable to have 
the center of the yard open to the front to afford a good 
view of the road from the house. The large plantings, such 
as trees, should be at the rear of the buildings and at the sides 
of the yard, where they will furnish shade and a background 
for the house without obstructing the view. Care should be 
taken not to overcrowd the house with trees. Shrubs should 
be planted plentifully, but always in groups or clumps, and 

291 



292 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

not as scattering plants. Common shrubs growing wild in 
fields are often more attractive to plant than uncommon 
shrubs that come from the nurseries. The flower gardens 
and vegetable gardens should be at one side or in the rear of 
the house. It is often desirable to plant low-growing plants 
against the foundation of the house. 

The barns and other outbuildings should be conveniently 
located at one side or in the rear of the house and should 
be connected by as few walks as will serve the needs of those 
using them. 

In general appearance the place should look simple, large, 
and generous, and should have a free, countrylike appearance. 
All parts of the place, and especially the yard, should have 
good care. 

Equipment. — A foot rule with one-sixteenth inch sub- 
divisions. 

Directions. — Make a drawing of a farm site, showing the 
size and location of the yard, garden, orchard, feed lots, roads, 
lawns, etc. Show the location of the house, barn, well, and 
all outbuildings. Show the location of all trees and shrubs 
used in the plantings around the yard. Make a list of the 
trees and shrubs you know that would be suitable for planting 
in the farmyard. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 293 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



294 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 72 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CORN 

Object. — To study the geographical distribution of corn 
over the United States. 

Explanation. — The most important farm crops are usually 
produced where the conditions of environment are most 
favorable to their growth and development. The Corn Belt 
of the United States lies in the Central States in the valleys 
of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Nearly all the 
states produce corn, but three fourths of the corn crop of the 
United States is produced in less than ten states, which are 
known as the Corn Belt. 

Equipment. — Yearbook of the United States Department 
of Agriculture. 

Directions. — Record in tabular form the total and acre 
yield of corn for each state in the United States. On the 
accompanying map show the distribution of corn by placing 
a star in each state for each 10,000,000 bushels of corn pro- 
duced. For each state producing less than 10,000,000 bushels 
record on the map the amount produced. 



295 



296 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 297 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



298 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 




EXERCISE 73 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WHEAT 

Object. — To study the geographical distribution of wheat 
over the United States. 

Explanation. — Wheat is adapted to growth in warm, 
temperate, and cool climates, and on various types of soils. 
Because of its general adaptation, it is widely distributed 
over the United States. 

Equipment. — Yearbook of the United States Department 
of Agriculture. 

Directions. — Record in tabular form the total and acre 
yield of wheat for each state in the United States. On the 
accompanying map indicate the distribution of wheat by 
placing a star in each state for each 5,000,000 bushels of wheat 
produced. For each state producing less than 5,000,000 
bushels record on the map the number of bushels produced. 



299 



300 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 301 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



302 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 




EXERCISE 74 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF OATS 

Object. — To study the geographical distribution of oats 
over the United States. 

Explanation. — Oats will grow in practically all localities 
in which wheat will grow. When grown in the same districts 
with wheat, it is usually grown in rotation with wheat and 
other crops. It reaches its highest development on the 
better lands and in a climate which is medium, moist, and cool. 
Of all the grains it ranks next to corn in number of bushels 
produced in the United States. 

Equipment. — Yearbook of the United States Department 
of Agriculture. 

Directions. — Record in tabular form the total and acre 
yield of oats for each stale in the United States. On the 
accompanying map indicate the distribution of oats by placing 
a star in each state for each 5,000,000 bushels of oats produced. 
For each state producing less than 5,000,000 bushels record 
on the map the amount produced. 



303 



304 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 305 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



306 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 




EXERCISE 75 

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF 
POTATOES 

Object. — To study the geographical distribution of 
potatoes over the United States. 

Explanation. — Potatoes are generally grown throughout 
the United States, but the localities in which they develop 
best are restricted. Maximum yields are usually produced 
on a well-drained, sandy loam soil that contains an abun- 
dance of humus. 

Equipment. — Yearbook of the United States Department 
of Agriculture. 

Directions. — Record in tabular form the total and acre 
yield of potatoes for each state in the United States. On the 
accompanying map show the distribution of potatoes by 
placing a star in each state for each 5,000,000 bushels of 
potatoes produced. For each state producing less than 
5,000,000 bushels record on the map the amount produced. 



307 



308 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 309 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



310 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 




EXERCISE 76 
TREE IDENTIFICATION 

Object. — To study trees and become familiar with their 
general form, method of branching, shape and arrangement 
of leaves, and character of bark. 

Explanation. — There are many kinds of trees, present- 
ing a great variety of shapes and individual character- 
istics. The form of trees differs; some grow tall and 
slender, while others are spreading and grow close to the 
ground. The number of branches and their arrangement 
vary greatly. The shape, size, and arrangement of 
leaves are individual characteristics and may be used in 
distinguishing different kinds of trees. Botanical classifica- 
tion is based largely upon the method of reproduction, and 
upon the kind and character of the seed vessels and seed 
coverings. 

Directions. — Go to the city park or a near-by woods and 
make a list of as many trees growing there as you can identify. 
Select a typical elm, maple, and ash, and make a drawing of 
each. The drawing should show the outline form of the tree 
and the arrangement of the branches. What is the difference 
in the shape of these trees ? What is the principal difference 
in the arrangement of the branches? 

311 



312 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

Select a twig one foot to eighteen inches long from each of 
these trees and make a drawing of each, showing the shape 
of the leaves and their arrangement on the twigs. 

Describe the difference in the shape of the leaves and in 
their arrangement. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 313 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



314 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 77 
STARTING PLANTS BY CUTTINGS 

Object. — To prepare cuttings for setting in pots and in 
the nursery. 

Explanation. — A cutting is a small portion of a plant re- 
moved from the parent and placed under proper conditions 
for favorable growth. Cuttings may be made from many 
hard wood and herbaceous plants. Wood cuttings should be 
collected in the fall and stored in a cellar during the winter, 
where they will partly heal over. Herbaceous cuttings may 
be taken directly from the green plant and placed in the 
starting box. 

Equipment. — 1. Twigs of grape and willow or cotton- 
wood which have been stored in the cellar during the winter. 

2. Plants of geranium or wandering jew. 

3. A starting box two by three feet, one foot deep. 
Directions. — Fill the starting box with sand and wet it 

thoroughly. Use the twigs or branches of grapevines and 
willow or cottonwood that were collected and stored in 
Ex. 15. Remove all but two buds on the top part of the 
plant. Make holes in the sand with a sharp stick or lead 
pencil about three inches apart. Insert the twigs in the 
holes and press the sand firmly about them. 

Obtain small slips or branches of the geranium or wandering 

315 



316 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

jew. They should be from one to three inches long. Re- 
move some of the leaves. This will reduce the amount of 
moisture lost by transpiration while the roots are becoming 
established. Place the slip in the sand one to two inches 
deep, as in the case of the wood cuttings. If possible, the 
bottom of the box should be kept at a higher temperature 
than the air above. Keep the sand well watered. The hard 
wood cuttings may be transferred to the nursery and the 
herbaceous plants to pots after their root systems are estab- 
lished. 



EXERCISE 78 
POTTING PLANTS 

Object. — To study and practice methods of potting 
plants. 

Explanation. — Small seedlings or cuttings are often potted 
in the greenhouse previous to setting in the soil out of doors. 
Flowering plants and ferns are often left in the pot for an 
indefinite length of time. The process of potting a plant is 
quite simple, and can be properly accomplished with a little 
thought and practice. The plant should be well placed in 
the center of the pot neither too deep nor too high. The 
size of the pot should correspond to the size of the plant. 
When the plant becomes too large for the pot, it should be re- 
potted. The bottom of the pot should be open to allow 
drainage, and the soil should contain sufficient fine gravel 
and sand to insure perfect drainage. 

Equipment. — 1. Ten three-inch flower pots. 

2. Ten geranium plants four weeks old, from cuttings. 

3. A loam soil. 

4. Small amounts of gravel and sand. 

Directions. — Prepare the soil for potting by mixing to- 
gether three parts of loam, one part of thoroughly rotted 
manure, and one part of sand. Fill the pot with gravel to a 
depth of one half inch. Sprinkle over the gravel a sufficient 

317 



318 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

depth of the prepared soil so that the plant will have the proper 
position in the pot when its roots just touch the soil. Re- 
move a plant from the starting box and place it in position 
in the pot. Spread the roots of the plant out well and 
sprinkle prepared soil between them. Press the soil firmly 
about the roots and stem. Fill the pot with soil to within 
one half inch of the top. Add water slowly until it starts to 
run from the drain at the bottom of the pot. Place the pot 
in the laboratory window or in some other convenient place 
where it will have sufficient light and heat for growth. 
Water the plant at frequent intervals to keep it in good 
growing condition. Pot each plant in a similar manner. 



STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 319 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 79 
THE DAIRY HERD RECORD l 

Object. — To keep a record of the production of milk 
and butter fat of a herd of dairy cows. 

Explanation. — It is impossible to determine the value of a 
dairy cow for milk or butter fat production without keeping 
a record of her products. The products of the dairy cow are 
usually sold from the farm in one of the following ways : 
first, as milk, either retail or wholesale ; second, as cream 
to creameries or to retail trade ; third, as butter sold direct 
from the farm. In keeping records of the cows the dis- 
position made of the milk should be considered and the prof- 
its figured on these terms. When whole milk is sold, the 
milk record of each cow should be kept. When the milk 
is separated and the cream sold on the butter-fat basis, a 
record should be kept of the pounds of butter fat produced 
by each cow. When the butter is sold direct from the farm, 
it is equally important to know the record of each cow. 

Equipment. — Spring balance scales weighing to one fourth 
pound. 

Directions. — Let each student who can do so keep a rec- 
ord of the dairy cows on his home farm for one month. 

1 Adapted from O. E. Reed, A Dairy Primer, Chapters in Ele- 
ments of Agriculture, Kansas State Agricultural College, Man- 
hattan, Kansas. 

320 



THE DAIRY HERD RECORD 321 

Rule a sheet of paper as the accompanying milk record sheet 
in " Student's Notes and Report " 1 is ruled. Tack the milk 
record sheet on the wall in the barn, near the cows. Sus- 
pend the pair of spring balance scales from the ceiling near 
the milk sheet. Fasten a lead pencil to a spring and attach 
it to the wall near the milk sheet. Keep a record of the 
milk of each cow for one month. (To determine the value 
of a cow for milk production, a complete record must be kept 
of the milk produced from the time she freshens until she is 
dry.) A test of each cow's milk for butter fat should be 
made at the beginning and end of the month. To secure a 
sample of the milk for testing, take a small quantity (about 
three tablespoonfuls) of the milk of each cow from each 
milking for two days. The milk should be thoroughly mixed 
before sampling. Place the milk from each cow in a sepa- 
rate bottle and label. Test each sample for butter fat by 
means of the Babcock test (Ex. 52). 

Figure up the total amount of milk given by each cow 
during the month. Determine the value of the milk sold 
from each cow during the month. If whole milk is sold, figure 
the value in pounds or gallons. A gallon of milk weighs 
8.66 pounds. If cream is sold, figure the value of the butter 
fat from each cow. Get the market price of whole milk and 
the market price of butter fat in your community and figure 
in which way it would be the most profitable to sell your 
milk. 

1 A milk record sheet can undoubtedly be obtained without cost 
from your State Agricultural College or Experiment Station. 



322 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 



Milk Record 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 
Milk Record Sheet 

For the Month Ending 191 



Day 


Time 


Name or Number of Cows 


1 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































2 
3 


A M. 
P.M. 

A.M. 
P.M. 






































— 


4 


A.M. 
P.M. 




5 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































6 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































7 


A.M. 

P.M. 








































8 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































9 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































10 


A.M. 
P.M. 




11 


A.M. 
P.M. 








12 


A.M. 
P.M. 












— 




























13 


A.M. 

P.M. 














14 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































15 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































16 


A.M. 
P.M. 









































STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



323 



Milk Record 



Milk Record Sheet — Continued 

For the Month Ending 



191 



Day 


Time 


Name or Number of Cows 


17 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































18 


A.M. 
P.M. 








19 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































20 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































21 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































22 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































23 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































24 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































25 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































26 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































27 


A.M. 

P.M. 








































28 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































29 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































30 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































31 


A.M. 
P.M. 








































Total 
Milk 




Per cent 
Butter fat 








































Total 
Butter f 


at 









































324 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 80 
A STUDY OF THE EGG 1 

Object. — To study the egg and become familiar with its 
parts. 

Explanation. — In structure the egg consists of three 
principal parts : the shell, white, and yolk. The eggshell is 
a structure composed principally of lime for the purpose of 
protecting the egg. Just under the shell are two thin, tough 
membranes that serve further to protect the egg and prevent 
its drying out too rapidly. Near the larger end of the egg 
is usually found an air space. This air space is compara- 
tively small when the egg is fresh, but becomes larger as the 
egg grows older, due to the drying out and shrinking of the 
white and yolk of the egg. The size of the air space serves as 
a means of determining the age of the egg. The air space 
is for the purpose of furnishing a ready supply of fresh air to 
the young developing chick. The air space lies between 
the outer and inner membranes. 

The white of the egg consists of three important parts : 
the outer, thicker albumen ; the inner, thinner albumen ; and 
the chalaza. The albumen supplies in liquid form the food 
by which the chick grows within the shell. The chalaza 
consists of white cords of denser albumen that adhere to the 

1 Adapted from J. E. Rice in the Cornell Rural School Leaflet, 
Vol. I, No. 2. 

325 



326 



LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 




side of the yolk toward either end. These cords serve to 
keep the yolk suspended properly within the albumen. 

The yolk of the egg consists of three parts : the germ spot, 
light yolk, and dark yolk. The germ spot appears as a 
light-colored spot usually found on the upper surface of the 
yolk. It is from this germ that the young chick develops. 

There is a tendency 
for the yolk to float 
at the surface of the 
egg. It is therefore 
necessary to turn fre- 
quently eggs that are 
to be used for hatching. 
If the egg is not turned 
frequently, the yolk 
will rise until the germ 
comes in contact with 
the shell membrane. 
It will then become 
dry by evaporation and adhere to the membrane. If the 
egg is then turned, the germ will be killed. Figure 28 shows 
a cross section of an egg. 

Equipment. — 1. Two eggs, one light and one dark, for 
each member of the class. 

2. Two saucers for each member of the class. 

3. A sauce pan. 

4. Some means of boiling an egg. 1 

5. A knife. 

1 If the eggs cannot be boiled at school, have each student bring 
a boiled egg from home. 



Fig. 28. — Sections of an egg. 1, germ spot; 
2, light yolk ; 3, dark yolk ; 4, chalaza ; 

5, the inner, thinner white or albumen ; 

6, the outer, thicker white or albumen ; 

7, inner membrane ; 8, air space ; 9, outer 
membrane ; 10, shell. 



A STUDY OF THE EGG 327 

6. An egg tester which may be made from a box large 
enough to hold a small lighted lamp. In the box opposite 
the lamp cut a hole slightly smaller than the egg. 

Directions. — Examine several eggs in the egg tester by 
holding them in the hole of the egg tester and looking through 
the egg toward the light. The egg tester must be used in a 
darkened room. Observe the size of the air space. The 
size of the air space gives some indication of the age of the 
egg. A spoiled egg does not look clear and distinct as a 
fresh egg does. 

Break a fresh, uncooked egg in a saucer by separating the 
shell in the middle. Observe the germ on the upper surface 
of the yolk. Note the chalaza and the transparent watery 
appearance of the albumen. Examine the shell and observe 
the air space and the two outer membranes best seen at the 
air space. Note the pigment of the shell which gives the 
egg its color. 

Boil an egg hard. Crack the large end of the egg and re- 
move the shell piece by piece. Observe the air space and the 
two outer membranes. Cut the egg lengthwise and make a 
drawing of the longitudinal section showing: 

1. The air space. 

2. The two outer membranes. 

3. The three layers of the white. 

4. The white yolk and the dark yolk. 

5. The germ. 



328 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 329 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 81 



A STUDY OF THE RICE HEAD 



Object. — To examine the head of rice and become famil- 
iar with the shape and 
arrangement of its dif- 
ferent parts. 

Explanation. — The 
head of rice is com- 
monly called a panicle. 
It is composed of a 
branching stem with 
spikelets attached. 
Each spikelet contains 
but one kernel. The 
kernel is inclosed within 
a flowering glume on 
one side and the palea 
on the other. The 
flowering glume incloses 
about two thirds of 
the kernel. The outer 
glumes in rice do not 

Fig. 29. — A, a head of rice; B, a single cover the flowering 
spikelet ; C, the kernel of rice with glumes 
and palea removed. glumes, but are Small 

330 




A STUDY OF THE RICE HEAD 331 

projections at the base of the kernel. The kernel is flat- 
oval in shape with lines or small depressions running from 
top to bottom. The spikelets are placed singly at various 
intervals along the branches. Figure 29 shows the rice head. 

Equipment. — Heads of rice for each member of the 
class. 

Directions. — Make a drawing of the entire head of rice. 
Remove a spikelet and make a drawing of it. Draw the 
outer glumes ; a single flowering glume ; and the palea. 
Make a drawing of the kernel showing the broad or side 
view, one showing the germ side, and one showing the cross 
section. Make all drawings at least four times natural 
size, except the one of the panicle. Make them in careful 
detail and show all the different parts. 



332 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 333 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



EXERCISE 82 
TREE PLANTING 

Object. — To observe the conditions which are necessary 
for the successful transplanting of trees and shrubs. 

Explanation. — Trees are usually started in the nursery, 
where at small cost special attention may be given them 
during their early development. Desirable shade trees often 
may be obtained along the creek bank or in the wood lot. 
Small trees may be safely transplanted after they have made 
two or three years' successful growth in the nursery. Trees 
may be reset either in the fall or in the spring. Spring 
planting is usually more successful. They should be trans- 
planted when they are in a dormant stage just before the 
buds begin to swell. 

There are three distinct steps in tree transplanting. They 
are : removing the tree from the soil, preparing the tree for 
resetting and transferring it to its new location, and replacing 
it in the soil. 

In removing the tree from the soil care should be taken not 
to injure the roots. In preparing it for transplanting, the 
top should be cut back. This will reduce the leaf surface 
and amount of transpiration as the plant begins to grow. 
If this is not done, the tree may be stunted or perhaps may 
even die while the root system is becoming established. All 

334 



TREE PLANTING 335 

injured limbs or injured roots should be removed with a sharp 
knife. The roots should not be allowed to become dry 
through exposure to the sun during the transfer to the new 
location. 

The hole for resetting must be sufficiently large to accom- 
modate the roots without crowding them. After the tree 
has been properly adjusted in its new location, loose soil 
should be worked in carefully about its roots. The soil should 
be compacted about the roots so that they will more readily 
s+art. The soil on the surface should be left loose to serve 
as a mulch. 

Equipment. — A good shade tree. 

2. Spade. 

3. Pruning knife. 

Directions. — Select a desirable tree from the nursery or 
wood lot. It is best to use a tree two or three years old. 
Dig around it and remove it from the soil, injuring as few 
roots as possible. Keep the roots covered while transferring 
it to its new location. Cut the top back and remove all un- 
desirable branches. Dig a hole sufficiently large to accom- 
modate all the roots. Adjust the tree properly and fill in 
between the roots with loose soil. Compact the soil firmly 
about the roots. Water the tree when you have the hole 
about two thirds full of dirt. Fill the hole level to the top 
with loose soil. 



336 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 



APPENDIX 

SECTION I 
EQUIPMENT '» 

Amount Necessary for a Class of Ten Students 

1 Babcock testing outfit (c). 

1 balance, torsion, weighing to jV gram (b). 

1 balance, spring (a). 

1 basket, \ bushel (a). 

6 beakers, 500 c.c. (6). 

1 burner, alcohol or gas (6). 

1 crock, 4-gallon (a). 

2 crocks, 2-gallon (a). 

1 The letter in parenthesis following the items of equipment refers 
to the place where the equipment may be secured : 

{a) Local dealer. (6) Chemical Supply Houses, (c) Creamery 
Package Manufacturing Co., Chicago, 111. (d) Central Scientific 
Co., Chicago, 111. (e) The authors of this Manual will supply a 
limited number of sets of type samples of grain for secondary school 
work at a price sufficient to cover cost of material and packing. 
(See suggestions to teachers.) (/) Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., 
Rochester, N.Y. (g) E. and T. Fairbanks & Co., St. Johnsbury, 
Vt. (h) Apple seedlings can usually be purchased in lots of 100 
from nurseries at very small cost. 

Note. — The following are a few reliable chemical supply houses : 
E. H. Sargent & Co., Chicago, 111. ; Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., 
Rochester, N.Y. ; Eimer & Amend, New York City, N.Y. 
z 337 



338 APPENDIX 

4 cylinders, evaporation (d). 

6 cylinders, percolation, with rack and supply tank (d). 

1 cylinder, graduated 100 c.c. (6). 
10 forceps (6). 

4 glass plates, 3 inches square (a). 

1 grain, set of type samples of (e). 

1 knife, long-bladed (a). 

6 jars, Mason, 1 quart (a). 
10 lenses, hand (a). 

1 microscope, magnifying to low power (/). 

6 microscope slides (/). 

1 oilcloth, 18 inches square (a). 

1 pan, galvanized iron 5 X 14 inches, 3 inches deep (a). 
12 pans, tin, 6 inches in diameter (pie pans) (a). 

50 plates, paper (a). 

2 pots, flower, 6 inches in diameter (a). 

10 pots, flower, 3 inches in diameter (a). 
1 pruning shears (a). 

1 pruning saw (a). 
1 pruning knife (a). 
1 rule, foot, division T ^ inch (a). 
1 sieve, for sifting soil, 12 meshes to inch (a). 
1 saucepan, 2 quarts (a). 
20 saucers (a). 
1 scales, weighing 100 lb., accurate to \ pound (a). 
1 shears (a). 

1 soil auger, 3 feet in length (a). 
1 string, ball (a). 
1 tape line, 100 feet in length (a). 
4 test tubes, large size (6). 

11 thermometers, chemical (b). 

4 tubes, glass, 3 feet long, 1 inch in diameter (6). 

6 wash pans (a). 

1 weight-per-bushel tester (g). 



APPENDIX 339 



SUPPLIES 

The most of which can be provided by the teacher or secured 
at a small cost. 
100 apple seedlings, one year old (h). 
2 boxes 2x3 feet and 1 foot deep (starting boxes). 
1 box, large, for storing cutting and grafting material. 
1 pound beeswax. 
5 yards cheese cloth. 
30 grams copper sulphate. 

1 corn tester, for germinating seed corn. 
24 eggs. 
1 egg tester, for candling eggs. 
Grain in the following amounts : 
1 pound alfalfa seed. 
4 pounds beans. 
Barley — 

4 ten-pound lots of different samples of barley. 
1 bundle of barley heads. 
1 pound clover seed. 

1 pound sweet corn. 
Field corn — 

12 ten-ear samples. 

4 ten-pound lots of different samples of shelled corn. 
\ bushel of shelled corn. 
Cowpeas — 

2 six-pound lots of different samples. 

1 pound grass seed (timothy, orchard grass, or redtop). 
Oats — 

4 ten-pound lots of different samples of oats. 

\ bushel of oats. 

A bundle of oat heads. 
Rye — 

4 ten-pound lots of different samples of rye. 

A bundle of rye heads. 
Sorghum — 

4 ten-pound lots of different samples of sorghum. 

Heads of milo, kafir, and sweet sorghum. 



340 APPENDIX 

Wheat — 

4 ten-pound samples of different lots of wheat. 
A bundle of wheat heads 
1 bushel of uncleaned wheat. 
2 pints milk, different samples. 
1 plant, geranium to use for cuttings. 
1 bushel sand for germination. 
Soil. — Three bushels each of the following kinds of air-dry soil 
gravel, sand, loam, and clay. 
1 tube rack for holding capillary soil tubes. 
18 inches rubber tubing, \ inch inside diameter. 



APPENDIX 

SECTION II 
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

The laboratory work of this manual is outlined to meet the needs 
of secondary schools giving a year's instructional work in agri- 
culture. It is impossible to give satisfactory instruction in agri- 
culture without practical demonstrations, which can only be given 
in the field and laboratory. In planning this laboratory manual 
the authors have assumed that five periods a week will be devoted 
to the subject of agriculture : three to be used for classroom and 
lecture work and two periods of one and one half or two hours' 
duration to be spent in the laboratory and field. Since it is occa- 
sionally necessary to make short trips and excursions during the 
laboratory period, it will be found most satisfactory to devote the 
last periods in the afternoon to this work. If this is done, it will 
be possible to make longer trips than could be made if the work 
occurred at some other time of the day. 

Suggestions concerning Equipment. — The list of equipment 
given in Section 1 of the Appendix gives in detail all apparatus 
and supplies required to carry out successfully the exercises given 
in the manual. Very few schools will find it necessary to purchase 
this entire list of equipment, for most schools are well equipped to 
teach laboratory work in botany, chemistry, and physics. Ordi- 
narily the same microscope, balances, scales, and much of the glass- 
ware that are used for botany, chemistry, and physics may also 
be used in agriculture, to avoid the expense of duplication. 

Soils. — There are a number of exercises in soils that demand 
special equipment. It is to the best interest of the work to provide 
this equipment when possible. Where funds are limited, less ex- 

341 



342 APPENDIX 

pensive equipment may be substituted. Student lamp chimneys 
may be used to replace glass tubes in Ex. 8 and 14. Tin cans 
with perforated bottoms may be used to replace the percolator 
equipment in Ex. 9. The same cans may also be used in Ex. 
11. Solid-bottom quart tin cans may be used to replace the 
equipment called for in Ex. 10. In Ex. 13 four-gallon crocks may 
be used to replace the soil cylinders. If crocks are used to replace 
the evaporation cylinders, the soil must be saturated with water by 
applying water at the top before the mulches are added. 

Four types of soil are needed in the laboratory : gravel, sand, 
loam, and clay. The gravel and sand may be obtained along 
streams, or if no stream is convenient, it can be secured as concrete 
sand from local lumber dealers. The concrete sand should be sifted 
through a sieve twelve meshes to the linear inch. The coarser 
material will furnish gravel and the finer material sand. Loam 
and clay can usually be obtained near the school. All the soils 
should be thoroughly air dry, pulverized, and sifted before they 
are used. 

Crops. — The laboratory exercises in crops require head samples 
and seeds of a number of the common cereals and legumes. It will' 
be necessary for the instructor to secure samples of heads of the 
grains to be studied. This can best be done by collecting the ma- 
terial in the field. If field samples have not been secured, it 
may be possible to obtain them from stacks or barns where this 
material has been stored. Samples of threshed and shelled grain 
may be obtained from local mills and elevators. Some of the more 
uncommon grains and seeds can be secured from seed houses. 

Type Samples. — It is impossible successfully to study types 
and classes of grain without using a standard for comparison. 
It may be possible for schools to obtain type samples of grains from 
their state agricultural experiment stations. The authors of this 
manual, realizing the difficulty that many schools will have in obtain- 
ing suitable type samples, have arranged to supply this material 
at a cost of 50 cents per case of six samples or $3.50 for an entire 
set of 48 samples. (This price does not include postage or express.) 
These samples will be put up in glass-front cases, properly labeled, 
and will include type samples of wheat, oats, rye, barley, legumes, 
and grass seeds. 



APPENDIX 343 

Farm Machinery. — A number of farm implements will be used 
as equipment in the exercises of this manual. This machinery 
can be borrowed from local implement dealers. If it is not con- 
venient to bring this machinery to the school grounds or laboratory, 
the class should be taken to the implement house for the work. 
If there are several implement dealers in the town, the class should 
be taken to the different dealers for the different exercises. 

Live Stock. — A very limited amount of work on live stock is 
outlined in the manual. Where live stock is of special interest, 
more time should be devoted to this phase of the work. In com- 
munities where dairying is important several exercises should be 
devoted to judging dairy cattle. The animals used for class judg- 
ing can undoubtedly be secured from farmers or live-stock owners 
in the community. Good live stock for school purposes can be 
obtained in nearly every place. 

Field Lessons. — Field lessons can be made the most valuable 
part of the work in agriculture, but to accomplish this the instructor 
must carefully plan the work. The instructor must be familiar 
with everything to be observed and studied on the trip. In Ex. 
68 and 69, on judging a farm, the farm chosen for the field trip should 
be located as near the school as possible. The first day should be 
spent studying the farm in the field and the second day used in 
discussing the good and poor points of the farm and completing 
the score card. 

Home Garden. — For the exercise on the home garden, Ex. 49 
and 50, the first day should be devoted to drawing the plan of 
the garden, spacing and arranging the crops. The second day 
should be used to figure the area devoted to each crop and the cost 
for seed as determined by prices secured from seed dealers. 

Extra Exercises. — A few more exercises appear in the manual 
than it is possible to give in a year's work in agriculture. This 
will allow some choice of exercises by the instructor. Where 
equipment is not available to perform a regular exercise, an extra 
exercise may be substituted. Of the extra exercises 76 is adapted 
for the fall, while 77 and 78 are suited for spring. Where Ex. 78 
is used, it should follow one month after Ex. 77. 

A Final Word to the Teacher. — Nearly every exercise in this 
manual is of such length that all the time possible for the laboratory 



344 APPENDIX 

period will be required to complete the work successfully. It will, 
therefore, be necessary for the teacher to have all material at hand 
to start the work promptly at the beginning of the period. The 
instructor should plan for each laboratory period far in advance. 
This is absolutely necessary in the case of Ex. 16, 17, 18, 58, and 59, 
for which material must be prepared four weeks in advance of the 
class period. 



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I 25 net 
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1 75 net 
I 75 net 

80 net 
I 50 net 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 



By G. F. WARREN 

Professor of Farm Management and Farm Crops, New York State College of 
Agriculture, at Cornell University 

Cloth, i2mo. 434 pages. %i.io net 



Upon the appearance of this volume, Mr. W. J. Spillman of 
the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, 
wrote as follows : 



" I wish to congratulate you upon this book. It is a type of book 
which has been much needed. We have had a large number of 
good books recently that were not up to high school grade. Dr. 
Warren's book will evidently make an excellent text for high school 
work in agriculture. It is comprehensive and at the same time in- 
tensive, considering the scope which it must necessarily cover. The 
subjects are well chosen and are excellently treated. I predict great 
usefulness for this book." 



This prediction has been confirmed not only by the words of 
hundreds of teachers who have used the book and found it emi- 
nently satisfactory, but by the fact that it is now used in more 
than one thousand schools and the number is rapidly increasing. 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 



OCT 18 1912 



